physical stock exchange

How do you think each of the following would affect a company’s ability to attract new capital and the flotation (issuing) costs involved in doing so?
a. The decision to list a company’s stock on a physical stock exchange; the stock now trades in the over-the-counter market.
b. The decision of a privately held company to go public.
c. An increasing importance of institutions in the stock and bond markets.
d. The trend toward financial conglomerates as opposed to stand-alone investment banking houses.
e. An increase in the number of shelf registrations.