Reflective Journal

To complete this task you will firstly need to read the resources in the folder â€œReflectionâ€ on the HSM402 Interact site.

The assessment task involves making entries in your reflective journal throughout the semester. It is recommended that you make entries at least weekly, during your

study sessions or on other occasions when you have time to record your thoughts. Each entry must be dated.

The journal is not a diary, although you will need to include some descriptive content on which to base your reflective comments. It is expected that your entries will

follow exposure to various â€œtriggersâ€ which might originate from the readings, forum discussions, topic activities, something you heard on the news, or from events

or incidents at work, such as interviewing applicants for a position. Your journal entry will naturally begin with a brief description of the situation, then follow on

with discussion about how you felt about it, what concerned you, what questions arose, and what the implications might be for your managerial practice, etc.

Importantly, after making an entry that demands further thought or action, you then return to it at a later date during the semester, perhaps several times, and make

additional commentary in the light of the new knowledge you have gained through your study or other experiences. A spiral of learning then forms, where each time your

return to the experience, you do so with a greater degree of knowledge.

It is also expected that you will:

use the journal to record the difference between what is presented to you in the readings, and what occurs in your workplace. The topic activities are designed to

promote your reflection in this regard. This process will also enable you to identify a topic for your third assignment.
include in your journal your reflections on your learning in the subject. You can include your initial feelings about the subject, your approach to study, use of

Interact, research techniques, time management etc.
include your reflections on your performance in Assignment 2 based on individual and group feedback.
include, in your final journal entry, a summary of the main issues that have emerged from your reflections during the semester, how your managerial thinking has

changed, and the rationale for your choice of topic for the third assignment.
clearly indicate using headings, your responses to the two preceding points.
It is important that you write freely in your journal, and include drawings, colour, photos if you choose. You may use “Pebblepad” as the format for your journal (see

Interact for details). You will be marked on the process of your reflection, and your engagement with the subject, not on the nature of your reflections or personal

views.

Note: You do not need to respond to all activities and discussion questions. Your weekly entry should focus on the issue/s that you feel are most significant, drawing

on the “triggers” as described above.

Rationale
Your journal provides a means for you to develop your knowledge and understanding of human resource management, through reflection on experiences, issues or problems

arising from practice or presented to you during the course of this subject. It also provides a place for you to record any tensions that emerge between what you read

in the literature and what is experienced in practice.

This assessment item relates to the following learning outcomes:

be able to discuss the context and nature of human resource management in health service organisations;
be able to analyse human resource management in relation to their own organisation and roles with refererence to contemporary theoretical frameworks;
be able to explain the relationship between human resource planning and the achievement of organisational objectives;
be able to discuss the role of human resource information systems in human resource management;
be able to identify and discuss ethical and legislative aspects of human resource management in relation to own practice;
be able to recognise the value of diversity management in the health care workplace;
be able to Integrate knowledge of the key human resource management functions of job analysis, job design, recruitment, selection and placement, induction, performance

management, training and development and discuss the contribution of these relationships to the achievement of organisational aims;
be able to analyse and reflect on the gaps between what is reported in the human resource management literature and what occurs in the workplace and recommend and

justify strategies for improvement

he nature of human resource management Human resource management in health service organsiations The field of human resources management has changed significantly over

the years. The changes that have occurred have necessitated a change in role focus and an expansion of the role function previously known as “personnel manager” as you

would be aware of from your study of the previous topic. Managing staff in any organization is not an easy task; it is multifunctional, multifaceted and

multidimensional. Anyone who is responsible for managing human resources is in effect a human resource manager. Challenges are constant in this field, as humans are

unpredictable, the workforce is changing, and legislation is increasing. In the health care industry, the challenges are significant as you will be aware.  For many

years the functions or responsibilities such as recruiting, selecting, training, and compensation (salary administration), were considered the realm of personnel

management. They were performed without much regard for how they related to each other or with any regard for overall organizational goals. Human resources management

is an extension of the traditional requirements of personnel management, which recognises the dynamic interaction (interrelationship) with each of the personnel

functions and with the strategic and planning objectives of the organization (Nankervis et al., 2011).  In the following reading, Mc Bride and Hyde (2006) provide an

interesting discussion on HRM in health care. The authors raise a number of key challenges for human resource management, and explore the links between human resource

management and performance. Although contextualized in the UK, the relevance of this reading to other contexts will be apparent.    Reading  2.3.1 McBride, A. & Hyde, P.

(2011). The healthcare workforce. In K. Walshe , & J. Smith, (Eds.). Healthcare management. Berkshire UK: McGraw Hill, pp. 237-252. (Pages 337-353.) (E Book chapter)

One of the dominant themes in this subject is that people matter. In your readings, you will come across a phrase ‘people are our most valued assets”. Trite perhaps,

but these days the rhetoric is all the more in evidence. The reality of this statement is an organization”s demonstration of active commitment to attracting staff

through effective recruitment and selection processes; retaining, developing and motivating staff through committed induction, socialization and training and

development programs and protecting staff in adherence to State and Commonwealth legislation such as Occupational Health and Safety, EEO, AA, unfair dismissal and so

on. If the rhetoric can be turned around to reality, an organization can reasonably expect to find a workforce prepared to contribute not only to organizational

productivity, but also to achieving organizational strategic objectives and establishing a competitive advantage.   Your study so far in this subject has introduced you

to the nature of human resource management and you have been encouraged to consider the evolutionary nature of this field of management. In some ways your texts

present a rather linear view of HRM, one that may not sit comfortably with HR in health service organisations, partly as a result of the complexity of these

organisations and their environments.   Forum  What are some of the challenges that confront human resource management in health service organisations now and over the

next 10-15 years? Which do you think are the most important, and why?

The nature of human resource management Definitions and historical origins For those of you who have studied HSM404 Management of Health and Aged Care Services, you

will recall the emphasis placed on the role of people in organisations, and understanding and managing organisations is about understanding people. Human resources,

along with financial and technological resources, form the raw materials that, through effective and efficient management practices, enable organisations to achieve

their goals (Nankervis, Compton, Baird & Coffey, 2011).  While human resources (HR) have always been critical to the success of any organisation, they have assumed an

increasingly greater role that is now being recognised inside and outside work organisations. Human resources include individuals with a wide variety and range of

skill, knowledge, and abilities who are expected to perform job activities in a manner that contributes to the attainment of organizational goals.  Activity  Before you

consult your readings, record in your journal definitions of the following terms:  Human resource management  Personnel management  To be able to fully appreciate and

differentiate between these concepts, it is important to gain an understanding of the historical origins of human resource management.  Readings      Nankervis et al.,

2014, Chapter 1, pp. 5-15.  This has also been included on E Reserve for the benefit of Canadian and other offshore students. (To access EReserve, go to the Library

site, and enter HSM402 into Primo search.)  This foundational chapter begins with an historical account of the development of human resource management. You will no

doubt observe that the development of human resource management can be considered evolutionary, that is, it has developed or evolved in response to various stimuli

including changes in the nature of work and society that occurred throughout history. Understanding human resource management as an evolutionary process enables us to

engage in some “informed speculation” about possible challenges that might arise in the future.  As you progress through the readings, aim to differentiate between the

terms “human resource management” and “personnel management”, return to the opening activity and update your definitions.  Reading  The following reading, available on E

Reserve presents a critical discussion on some of the differences between personnel and human resource management.  Legge, K. (2005). What is human resource management?

Human resource management: Rhetorics and realities (101-132). Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.

trategic human resource management Introduction Activity  In your journal, and before you undertake the readings, record your preliminary definitions of organizational

strategy and strategic human resource management.  Does your organization have a separate human resource department? To what extent are HRM functions integrated within

the roles of line managers? Should line managers have more, or less responsibility for carrying out HR functions? Enter your responses into your journal. We will

return to this at the end of this topic.

Strategic human resource management Defining SHRM Traditionally, HRM departments had limited involvement in the organisation”s affairs and goals. HR managers concerned

themselves with rosters, time sheets, payroll, job training and development programs, organising yearly performance appraisals and guarding personnel files. Then, the

emphasis was on short term day to day operational issues.  However, times have changed and managers at all levels have been required to consider the wider aims of the

organisation and of its ultimate survival. A focus on the relationship between the organisation”s internal and external environments and HR activities means the HR

manager is becoming more involved in the strategic or long-term direction and purpose of the organisation.  We talk and read about strategic human resources management.

What does this term mean?  Strategic human resource management (SHRM) is a systematic way of achieving the goals of the stakeholders in an organisation (a stakeholder

is someone who has a vested interests in the organisation e.g. shareholder, the government, customers, and staff). SHRM has been defined as  “the integrated set of

practices, policies and strategies through which organizations manage their human capital, that influences and is influenced by the business strategy, the

organizational context and the socio-economic context” (Martin- Alcazar et al. 2005 as cited in Nankervis et al., 2011, p. 19).  The main difference between strategic

human resource management and other approaches to the management of employees is that rather than being an isolated function, SHRM implies a partnership between

everyone in the organization, involving all stakeholders, and responding to influences within the internal and external environments. As a process, strategic HRM is

systematic, dynamic and proactive requiring consideration of short, medium and long-term goals.  Reading:  Nankervis et al. (2014), pp. 15- 44.   Activity  Return to your

journal and revise your definitions if necessary. Reconsider you answer to the question: Should line managers in your organization have more or less responsibility for

carrying out HR functions? Why?

Strategic human resource management Models of HRM  A variety of models and frameworks that explain SHRM can be found in the literature. These models provide insights

into the relationships between the external and internal environments of an organization, its characteristics, employment policies and organizational outcomes. All

identify the way these relationships can be utilised to create a ‘fit” between the various aspects of the organization, the environments and human resource policies.

Nankervis et al. (2011) present an excellent model that offers a framework for understanding each of the topic areas within this subject and their relationship to

SHRM.  There are however some limitations to the rational approach. Strategy is dynamic: a characteristic that is not readily captured by the models, which tend to be

static. In addition, workplace dynamics influence policy implementation in a ‘cumulative” manner, which may not be recognized. However, with these limitations in

mind, models can provide a useful representations for learning.   Activity  Compare the two models of HRM presented in Nankervis et al. (2014) the Harvard model (Beer et

al 1995) (Figure 1.1) and the authors” model (Figure 1.5). What differences do you notice between these two models? Compare Figure 1.5 with the approach to HRM taken

in your organization. What is the difference between the model and what occurs in your workplace?   Internet search  Perform a data base or internet search for

alternative models, and consider using these to enrich your discussion in assignment 1. Feel free to share any interesting findings on the forum.

Strategic human resource management SHRM in health service organisations In the previous topic, you considered the particular nature of human resource management in

health service organisations. As we discuss HRM from a strategic perspective, the wider context gains greater significance. The final section of this topic aims to

develop your understanding of SHRM in health service organisations.  For those of you who have studied HSM404 Management of Health and Aged Care Services, you will

recall the emphasis that was given to the distinctive nature of health service organisations. To refresh your memory and of those who have not studied this content,

please see the following reading located in the resource folder. Keep these differences in mind as you progress through the text readings that follow.  Reading:

(Resource Folder) Yen, M.(2008). Characteristics of health services organisations. HSM404 Management of health and aged care services. Bathurst: Charles Sturt

University.   Reading  Nankervis et al. (2014) Chapter 2: The context of human resource management. Belcourt, Bohlander & Snell (2008), Chapter 1: The world of human

resource management.   In the following reading the authors identify the relationship of SHRM to culture, structure, strategy and competency and clinical outcomes. This

reading complements the information presented in your text, and also identifies some of the unique characteristics of health service organizations that are relevant to

the HR strategy process.    Reading   Khatri, N., Wells, J., McCune, J. & Brewer, M. (2006). Strategic human resource issues in hospitals: A study of a university and a

community based hospital. Hospital Topics, 84 (4), 9-20. http://ezproxy.csu.edu.au/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?

direct=true&db=rzh&AN=2009481203&site=ehost-live    Optional reading  The following reading presents a review of the literature concerned with the relationship between

Human Resource Management and organizational performance. You may find some relevant links in this article to studies that may be useful for your assignments.  Harris,

C., Cortvriend, P.,&Hyde, P. (2007). Human resource management and performance in healthcare organizations. Journal of Health Organization and Management. 21, 4-5,

448-459.  http://ezproxy.csu.edu.au/login?url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/14777260710778961  Reflect  What have you learned from your study of this topic? Enter key

learning points into your journal. Review your learning in view of the learning outcomes.

Bookmark it! | My Bookmarks Human resource planning The Strategic Human Resource Planning process  There are four (4) phases to the planning process:  Forecasting-

determining supply and demand Goal setting- from supply and demand analysis Strategic planning- to consider options for reducing labour surplus or avoid labour

shortage Program implementation and evaluation- focus on goal achievement and measurement against expected outcomes (De Cieri & Kramar, 2003).     Barriers and

limitations  Despite numerous benefits afforded by HR planning, there are a variety of barriers to its effective implementation. General resistance both to centralised

planning and to changing what seems to have worked in the past is one; top managers giving HRM issues and staff relatively low priority is another; another barrier is

adequate resourcing of knowledge and skilled staff; suitable data methods for forecasting not being available is an issue and finally, the impact of human resource

planning programs being difficult to quantify.  It is in a context of change that HR planning is likely to be most worthwhile for the organisation. Circumstances in

which this may be the case would be where the organisation”s environment is complex and/or rapidly changing as in health. HR planning provides a basis for assessing

and prioritising HR needs which would otherwise be impossible. Another situation would be where labour shortages or surpluses are likely – to enable these to be

corrected before they become unmanageable or expensive such as reduction of massive redundancies and/or scheduling these over a longer time period.    Achieving a

strategic fit between organisational strategy and appropriate human resourcing may be impaired by a number of factors:  dehumanising effect of equating human with

material resources. lack of top management support; lack of line management involvement in the forecasting or lack of understanding of the importance; lack of control

over external events; inaccuracies in forecasts –particularly over longer time frames.  Whether HR planning is worth undertaking may depend on a number of factors:  top

management understanding and commitment; flexibility of staffing (internally); flexibility in the labour force (externally); understanding the links between strategy and

planning; provision of adequate staff, time and resources for HRP; accuracy and accessibility of data from the HRIS,  and other contingency variables such as:  the size

of the organisation; its position in the business cycle (new, in a high growth period, a mature organisation, or declining in its ‘life cycle”).  We have identified

that HR planning is an integrating and prioritising mechanism for all human resource functions in organisations.  Think about…  Can you now see the links in a chain

developing?  Strategy determines the plan and identifies ‘what business are we in”. HR planning addresses the question ‘what skills and how many skills are needed for

success in this business”.  HR planning and strategic planning become more effective when there is a reciprocal and interdependent relationship between the two and

when there is recognition by top management that HR activities are just as credible and as important as other management functions such as finance, clinical services,

hotel services and so on. Reading  Nankervis et al. (2014), Chapter 4: Human resource planning in a changing environment, 133- 160.  You may choose to skim through the

sections on labor demand forecasting and supply analysis- simply aim to gain a general understanding of the concepts and how they relate to the planning process.

Belcourt, Bohlander & Snell (2008), Chapter 2: Strategy and human resource planning    Activity Forum  Nankervis et al.(2011) suggest the following debate topic:

“Strategic HRP is impossible in the changing internal and external environments of organisations and with the short term perspectives of most Australian companies and

their governments.”  Is this the case in health? or in your health service organisation? Is there any point to planning in the current climate? Find out whether SHRP

occurs in your organisation, and the extent to which labour demand forecasting and labour supply analysis are carried out. You might choose to make notes in response

to these questions in your journal, or share your findings with others on the forum. If you can”t find the answers, then make notes about the process of trying to

find out as well!  Reading  O”Brien- Pallas, L. & Hayes, L. (2008). Challenges in getting workforce research in nursing used for decision-making in policy and practice:

a Canadian perspective. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 17 (24), pp. 338- 346. http://ezproxy.csu.edu.au/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?

direct=true&db=rzh&AN=2010135813&site=ehost-live   This Canadian study emphasises the need for research as an input into the HR Planning process. The article also

highlights a number of issues in HR planning within health service organisations. Note the conceptual framework (Figure 1) that extends the focus of planning to

include population health needs.

Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS) Definition and purpose A Human Resource Information Management System (HRIS) is “the composite of databases, computer

applications and hardware and software necessary to collect/record, store, manage, deliver, present, and manipulate data for human resources” (Broderick & Boudreau,

1992, cited in Ngai & Wat 2005, p. 297). A HRIS includes tools that can be used for data analysis and decision making at all levels in the organisation.  Effective

human resource management is dependent on access to a great deal of information. Whilst manual information systems (manual files) have always been a central element of

personnel management, computer technology has significantly changed this to enable organisations to combine human resource information into a single database. A common

computer-oriented information system used in the management of human resources if often referred to as a human resource information system (HRIS). Numerous software

programs now grace the market, and many organisations now include self serve web based “kiosk” programs.  Compliance with legislation has been one of the most

significant influences on the development and adoption of HRIS globally. However there are a number of other advantages that have been outlined in your text.

Importantly, HRIS not only provide mechanism for greater efficiency and secure storage of large amounts of employee data, but are essential for strategic human

resource management/ planning. Your text elaborates on this relationship.  Reading  Nankervis et al., (2014), Chapter 4: 160-171 Belcourt, Bohlander & Snell (2008),

Chapter 1, 9-11   Reading  Ngai, E.W.T. & Wat, F.K.T, (2006). Human resource information systems: A review and empirical analysis. Personnel Review, 35 (3), 297-334.

http://www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet?contentType=Article&Filename=/published/emeraldfulltextarticle/pdf/0140350304.pdf  Or

http://ezproxy.csu.edu.au/login?url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00483480610656702     This study, carried out in Hong Kong, provides additional insights into the

advantages of HRIS and barriers to its implementation.     Optional reading  The following reading presents a more detailed discussion on the different forms and

application of HRIMS:  Hendrickson, A.R. (2003). Human resource information systems: backbone technology of contemporary human resources. Journal of Labor Research, 24

(3), 381-394. http://ezproxy.csu.edu.au/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=s3h&AN=10134127&site=ehost-live   Activity    To what extent does

your organisation use HRIMS? Do you have access? In what way would your role, and your ability to make decisions, be enhanced by a HRIMS?

Job Analysis and Job Design The job analysis debate Job analysis and job design have been criticized for assuming that work is performed in a static context and that

work itself is static. However, most organisations exist in a complex and dynamic environment, demanding flexibility in order to gain a competitive edge or indeed to

survive. This is certainly the case in health service organisations.  Reading  The following reading presents some excellent insights into this debate and outlines a

number of models that accommodate a strategic approach within a changing environment. It is a very interesting paper that includes historical aspects that are relevant

to management practice, and so is well worth taking the time to read.  Singh, P. (2008). Job analysis for a changing workplace. Human Resource Management Review. 18(2),

87-99. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1053482208000065 or http://ezproxy.csu.edu.au/login?url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2008.03.004   Job analysis

has a significant impact on other HRM activities and on an organisation”s equal opportunity considerations. The challenge is to find the best way but clearly to

identify the purpose is foremost. The major benefit to an organisation is that it can start to establish its HR needs, develop its requirements through a staff

establishment and allocation of a budget for staffing. The recruitment, selection and placement needs can now be determined.   Forum   According to Nelson, “When an

individual has the skill to do a task, he or she is encouraged to do it, regardless of the title or position” ( 1997, p. 41). Do you agree with this? Is this possible

in health services organisations?

Bookmark it! | My Bookmarks Recruitment Employers of choice Nankervis et al. (2014) discuss the desire by employers to be regarded as employers of choice, a brand that

aims to attract talent to their organisation. In healthcare the term ‘magnet hospitals” reflects this concept. The following reading explores this topic.  Reading

Middleton, S, Griffiths, R., Fernandez, R., & Smith, B. (2008). Nursing practice environment: How does one Australian hospital compare with magnet hospitals?

International Journal of Nursing Practice, 14, 366-372.  http://ezproxy.csu.edu.au/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?

direct=true&db=rzh&AN=2010040998&site=ehost-live        ActivityThink about…  To what extent to which your own organisation can be considered an employer of choice?

Recruitment Recruitment sources and trends The internal and external sources or methods of obtaining candidates are explained in some depth in your prescribed texts.

There are relative advantages and disadvantages of each.  There is no one best way to recruit; an effective HR manager will apply a contingent or situational approach.

Your texts provide discussion on the benefits and limitations of both internal and external recruiting.  Recent trends in recruitment include recognising workforce

diversity issues, the assessment of recruiting as a process – comparing the benefits of reduced turnover or enhanced performance against the cost of the program to

recruit job applicants. Costs, sources and methods can be assessed against benefits such as ease of recruiting or number of qualified applicants obtained.

Behaviourally based approaches to recruiting is another trend (the idea that a person”s past behaviour is a good predictor of their future behaviour) and applicant

rejection management is another. Another recruitment trend is outsourcing (employer contracting out work functions). What impact does or would this have on health

services? Which areas could be outsourced effectively and efficiently?  Recruitment is closely related to the selection and placement functions of staffing. Do not get

these functions mixed up. They are not interchangeable. Once a pool of applicants have applied for a job, a selection process gets underway to select who should be

considered for interview or other selection assessment methods. Reading  Nankervis et al. (2014) Chapter 6 pp. 221- 243: Talent attraction and selection  Belcourt,

Bohlander & Snell (2008), Chapter 5: Expanding the talent pool: Recruitment and careers.   Gillham, S. & Ristevski, E. (2007). Where do I go from here: We”ve got enough

seniors? Australian Journal of Rural Health 15(5), 315-330. http://ezproxy.csu.edu.au/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?

direct=true&db=rzh&AN=2009668520&site=ehost-live  This article explores recruitment issues in a particular health service environment.  There are however a multitude of

journals that deal with the issues studied in this topic, and you are encouraged to undertake your own exploration. Recruitment is not just about replacing employees

who have left, it is also attracting people who are likely to stay and support the organisation. Health services struggle to attract and retain nurses, as well as

other health professional including allied health and medical professional especially in rural areas. A number of innovative approaches have had some success but the

problems of employee shortage in these areas extend far beyond the organisation.    Forum  What are some of the approaches to recruitment in your organisation? Is there a

problem in recruiting health professionals? Explore the databases for innovative approaches to recruitment of health professionals and consider their implementation in

your workplace. Share your findings on the forum.   Activity   Return also to exhibit 1.6 in Reading 1 and reacquaint yourself with the relationship of recruitment to

strategic HRM and to other HR functions.

Selection and placement Induction  The final phase of the staffing process entails facilitating the adjustment of the new employee to his/her new position. Some

textbooks overlook this important aspect. Terms synonymous with adjustment are induction programs and socialisation, sometimes through mentoring programs.  Nankervis et

al (2011, pp. 285- 293) provide useful information about induction programs. Through induction, new employees can be socialised to an organisation. As most new

employees have a desire to fit in, not only to the organisation but to the immediate work area, induction programs becomes the initiator of socialisation process.

Reading  Price, S.L.(2009).Becoming a nurse: a meta-study of early professional socialization and career choice in nursing. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 65 (1) 11-19.

http://ezproxy.csu.edu.au/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rzh&AN=2010142601&site=ehost-live    Forum   Think about your experiences as a

new employee, of workplace induction. What were the positives and negatives? Did you feel that the process was beneficial to your early performance? What improvements

would you recommend? As you work through the sections on training and development, consider the literature in view of your experiences.  Feel free to share your

experiences on the subject forum.

Legislative and legal aspects Equal Employment Opportunity Activity  Before proceeding, develop a definition of EEO in your journal.   The NSW Government provides a

concise definition:  http://www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/Lawlink/Corporate/ll_corporate.nsf/pages/attorney_generals_department_equal_employment_opportunity   Equal employment

opportunity is based on the merit principle, which determines that, in the workplace, individuals should be employed in a fair and unbiased manner, based on merit.

Affirmative Action (AA) refers to the techniques and methods used to create EEO in respect to women and other disadvantaged groups within a particular society. The

importance of EEO as an HR issue has been acknowledged gradually as a response to international standards (international labour organisation-ILO), government action,

trade union policy and increasing participation of women in the workforce. In Australia the Affirmative Action (Equal Employment Opportunity for Women Act (1986)

requires the removal of direct and indirect discrimination through the application of the merit principle in employment policies.  Equal employment opportunity (EEO)

endeavours to counter various forms of discrimination including direct discrimination (exclusion of an individual or group because of a personal characteristic, which

is irrelevant to the performance of the work tasks). Indirect discrimination (exclusion of an individual or group because of the application of conditions or

requirements, disadvantaging individuals in some groups more than others), structural or systemic discrimination, reverse (positive) discrimination (to reverse the

effects of positive discrimination as in the USA).  Equal opportunity legislation seeks to systematically remove discrimination from the labour market by requiring

employers to take positive action to ensure their employment policies do not discriminate against women and other groups. Related to, and cited in EEO legislation, is

anti-discrimination legislation, which seeks to prohibit discriminatory behaviour. In Australia Anti discrimination legislation includes:  The Equal Opportunity

Employment (Commonwealth Authorities) Act 1987 The Workplace Relation Act 1996; The Racial Discrimination Act 1975;  The Sex Discrimination Act 1984; The Disability

Discrimination Act 2002; The Age Discrimination Act 2004  The Australian Industrial Relations Commission is required in its award-making role to prevent and eliminate

discrimination from the minimum conditions and wages contained in awards.  In North America the legislation is known as Equal Opportunity or employment equity. In

Canada the legal framework stems from the Constitution Act of 1982 which contains the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms – the cornerstone of equity legislation.

The Canadian Human Rights Act (1977) proclaims that:  ‘every individual should have an equal opportunity with other individuals to make for himself or herself the life

that he or she is able and wishes to have…without being hindered …by discriminatory practices based on race, nation or ethnic origin, colour, religion, age, sex or

marital status or conviction for an offence for which a pardon has been granted by discriminatory employment practices based on physical handicap” [Canadian Human

Rights Commission 1987 Paragraph 2 Subsection (a)].

Performance management Performance appraisals and evaluation Activity  Think back on your own experiences of performance appraisal i.e. of being appraised. What method

was used, and which aspects were useful and which were not? What do you think is important for managers to know about performance appraisal?   Reading  Nankervis et al.

(2014), pp. 343-390.  Belcourt, Bohlander & Snell (2008) 350-386  The performance appraisal is probably the most widely used formal process. However within the concept

of continuous performance management it is only one tool available for managing employee performance. Whilst the performance appraisal remains a central part of

performance management, if the overall performance management process is effectively working, it should not be viewed as a once a year, stand alone, ordeal. The

ongoing dialogue between employees and their managers that is at the centre of performance management should mean formal appraisals are merely an extension of daily

practices and consequently should hold no fears or unexpected shocks for employees or managers.  The prescribed texts highlight many reasons why performance appraisals

may, and have failed to achieve any real benefits for either organisations or employees. Many of these reasons relate to technical aspects e.g. poorly designed

evaluation instruments, appraiser biases, poor interviewing skills, failure to link appraisals to the organisation”s strategic purpose, inadequate training for those

involved etc. You may have captured some of these in your reflective activity at the start of this topic. However you need to also assess whether any identified

failure within your workplace is related to some of the broader conceptual issues which are outlined in your text.   It is important for you (and managers in general) to

appreciate that managing employee performance means addressing and managing both effective and ineffective employee performance. Whilst there will be a degree of

commonality between how this is undertaken, there will also be different approaches and management tools needed to address the two. Personal and career development

programs, performance maintenance programs, recognition and reward versus counselling processes, Employee Assistance Programs (EAP”s), discipline procedures, demotion

and dismissal to name a few. These aspects are outlined in your text.   Finally, in relating the concept of performance management within the overall framework of

Strategic Human Resource Management (HRM), it is essential you appreciate the two-way relationship that exists between performance management and all the other HRM

functions and activities. Because of this critical interrelationship you need to assess whether it is possible for SHRM to achieve its strategic, operational and

functional purpose without the existence of an effective performance management program. Refer to exhibit 1.6 in Nankervis, Compton & Baird (2008) and consider this

relationship.  Activity   Have a look at the strategic plan of your organisation and consider how the performance management system links to organisational strategy. If

you are unable to access your plan (or you don”t have one!) you can either search the web or look at the following plan that has been developed by Ambulance

Victoria:  http://www.ambulance.vic.gov.au/Media/docs/28336_Dec09_v2_COLOUR-51a3ac1e-b8e5-447c-bbb5-cf42ee589ad9-0.pdf

Training and development Motivation It seems relevant here to consider the links between motivation and SHRM. For those of you who have studied HSM404 you will recall

some discussion on various models of motivation. The expectancy theory of motivation suggests that workers are motivated to perform not only by reward, but by the

expectation of satisfaction that will follow performance and the receipt of a valued reward. Rewards that are valued by the employee are part of the process, and may

be intrinsic (eg personal satisfaction) or extrinsic- (eg money, employee of the month etc.) however it is not the reward that motivates but the sense of satisfaction

that follows.  To facilitate a situation where employees achieve satisfaction through effective performance employers must:  Maintain consistency with their reward

system so that employees can trust that performance will be rewarded; Ensure that the rewards are valued by the employee; Provide opportunities for success/ achievement

in the workplace; Ensure that workers have the skills to perform their roles; Ensure that employees know what is expected of them- job roles etc  From this brief

description, you will identify the implications for employee recruitment, selection, induction and training. It is easy to see also from this list why employees may

not be motivated. Perhaps you can relate this to your own experience.  For more information on motivation, consult any management/ organizational behaviour text that

deals with this topic, or conduct a search for expectancy theory. Canadian students will find this topic is discussed in Chapter 9 of their text.   Activity  Consider

the training and development program in your organisation. How well is it aligned with the strategic focus? Is training and development considered the responsibility

of the organisation or of the employee? Which do you think is preferable?

Managing diversity Diversity management Diversity management aims to recognize that the diversity of the workforce mirrors that within the population. Diversity

management has been defined as “ensuring that factors are in place to provide for and encourage the continued development of a diverse workforce by melding actual and

perceived differences among workers to achieve maximum productivity”. (Mondy, 2008, p. 53)  Diversity management is about developing an inclusive and supportive culture

where individual value and difference is recognized and encouraged. This can be achieved through strategic design, policies and practices and through diversity

training (Bartol, Tein, Matthews & Sharma, 2008)   Bartol,Tein, Matthews & Sharma, (2008) outline the benefits of diversity management: Increased opportunity to develop

employee and organizational potential; Enhanced recruitment and retention; Successful interaction with clients/ market ; Increased creativity and adaptation;  Proactive

workplace diversity programs link into HR planning, recruitment and selection strategies. Advocates of proactive diversity programs, whilst claiming the inevitability

of workplace diversity, also highlight the importance of managing diversity and that failure to do so can contribute to conflict and failure of the organization to

achieve its full potential.  Reading  Nankervis et al. (2014), Chapter 5: Work Design Challenges in a Global Environment, pp. 210-213.  Belcourt, Bohlander & Snell (2008)

Chapter 3 133-136; Chapter 1:27; Chapter 5: 225-226.   Reading   The following Canadian study presents some interesting observations within a hospital environment.

Sulman, J., Kanee,M., Stewart, P., Savage, D. (2007). Does difference matter? Diversity and human rights in a hospital workplace. Social Work in Health Care, 44, (3),

pp. 145-159. http://ezproxy.csu.edu.au/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=25351659&site=ehost-live    Activity  With reference to the

commentary at the start of this topic:  Diversity management has been defined as “ensuring that factors are in place to provide for and encourage the continued

development of a diverse workforce by melding actual and perceived differences among workers to achieve maximum productivity”. (Mondy, 2008, p. 53).  To what extent is

this achieved in your workplace

Original Article
Getting the measure of reflection: considering matters of definition
and depth
Jenny Moon
Centre for Excellence in Media Practice, Bournemouth University, Bournemouth, UK
Abstract
Reflection, reflective learning, reflective writing and reflective practice are used increasingly in higher
education and professional development but we do not work to one definition and there are consider-able differences in the views of educationists on issues of

definition. Such discrepancies can exist
between the staff working with the same student group. The situation can lead to difficulties in indi-cating to students how to reflect, and what reflective writing

‘should look like’. Once students do manage
to represent their reflection broadly in the required manner (usually writing), there is frequently observed
to be a further problem because their reflection is superficial and descriptive. A consequence is that their
learning from the reflective process is restricted.
This paper addresses the issue of definition of reflection initially through clarifying the different words
used around the notion of reflection (e.g., reflection, reflective learning, reflective writing) and pro-viding some suggested definitions. It then addresses the

matters both of how we should help students to
start with reflection, and with the problem of the superficiality of much of their work. The ‘depth’ of
reflection is a concept that has not been much discussed in the literature of reflection and yet it seems to
be closely related to the quality of reflective work. The paper discusses the concept of depth and then
introduces a style of exercise in which a scenario is reproduced at progressively deeper levels of reflec-tion. The exercise is related to a generic framework for

reflective writing. The rationale and justification
for the exercise and the framework are discussed and suggestions are made for its manner of use. The
exercise and the generic framework for reflective writing are in Appendices 1 and 2.
The use of reflection to enhance formal learning has become increasingly common in the past 7 years.
From the principle beginnings of its use in the professional development of nurses and teachers, its use
has spread through other professions. Now, in the form of personal development planning (PDP), there is
an expectation that all students in higher education will be deliberately engaging in reflection in the
next 2 years.
1
In addition, there are examples of the use of reflective learning journals and other
reflective techniques in most, if not all, disciplines.
2
Reflection is not, however, a clearly defined and enacted concept. People hold different views of its nature,
which only become revealed at stages such as assessment. For example, what is it that differentiates
reflective writing from simple description? There are difficulties not only with the definition itself but also
in conveying to learners what it is that we require them to do in reflection and in encouraging reflection
that is deeper than description. In this paper, we consider some issues of definition and then focus on the
means of encouraging learners to produce a reflective output of good-enough quality for the task at hand.
Correspondence to: Jenny Moon, Centre for Excellence in Media
Practice, Bournemouth University, B ournemouth, UK. E -mail:
jmoon@bournemouth.ac.uk
Journal of
Radiotherapy
in Practice
Journal of R adiotherapy in Practice (2007)
6, 191200
2007 Cambridge University Press
doi: 10.1017/S1460396907006188
191
The latter is presented as an exercise for staff and learners (Appendix 1) with a framework that underpins it
(A pp end ix 2 ).
Keywords
definitions of reflection; reflection; reflective writing
ISSUES OF DEFINITION
There i s a bewildering a rray o f academic defini-tions and implied definitions for reflection in
the literature. However, there does seem to be
a p attern to this.
3
In te rms of a definition for
reflection, i t i s i mp ortant first t o recognise that
there are a number o f w ords around t he idea of
reflection, w hich have different im plications.
For example, ‘ reflection’ a nd ‘reflective l earning’
seem to be word s t ha t describe an int ernal pro cess
in contrast to ‘reflective writing’, which i s a
repr esentation of reflection, but, like any o ther
form of representation, it is not a d ir ect r epresen-tation of the i nternal p rocess. T he same internal
reflection might be represented as writing, in
speech, in a drawing, in an audio or visual diary
and s o on, and d iffe rent aspects o f t he reflection
would be evident in the d ifferent representa-tions.
4
While reflection and reflective learning
see m to be the s ame, the process is extended sig-nificantly in reflective writing o r o ther represen-tations o f reflection. ‘Reflective practice’ is
another linked term, and s eems generally t o be
used to describe a broader process i n w hich there
is a habit of reflecting (and—usually—represent-ing that reflection) on aspects o f a subject’s a ctiv-ity, in order to i mprove the p ractice. In other
words, the t erm is broadened into a sequence o f
activities, w hich now i nclude the notion o f
action and i mprovement of practice as well.
However, a realistic view of reflective practice is
also that it is a construct defined d ifferently in dif-ferent contexts—and hence i ts definition is the
manner in which i t i s defined locally.
In seeking definition of the terms for ‘reflec-tion’, we first need to acknowledge the existence
of the commonsense term—the ‘sitting pensively
un der t he app le t ree on a ho t d ay …’view.To
define ‘reflection’ away from its commonsense
conception would be confusing. Following
exploration of the concept of reflection and ref-lective learning, Moon
3
produced the following
d e f i ni t i on :
Reflection is a f orm of mental p rocessing—
like a form of thinking—that we may use
to fulfil a p urpose or to achieve some a ntici-pated outcome, or w e m ay simply ‘be reflec-tive’ when a n outcome may b e unexpected.
Reflection is applied t o relatively compl i-cated, ill-structured ideas f or which t here is
not an obvious solution and is largely based
on the f urther processing of knowledge
and understandi ng that we already p ossess.
However, this definition needs to be extended
when reflection is employed in formal education.
This is because reflection, in a formal context,
usually implies both processes of reflection and
the representation of reflection. Also the reflec-tion usually occurs under constraints and condi-tions that shape the learner’s reflective processes
and responses. Therefore, in a formal context,
we add to the commonsense definition of reflec-tion the following:
Reflection/reflective learning, or reflective
writing in the academic context, is also likely
to involve a conscious and stated purpose for
the reflection, with an outcome specified in
terms of learning, action or clarification. It
may be preceded by a description of the pur-pose and/or the subject matter of the reflec-tion. The process and outcome of reflective
work is most likely to be in a represented
(e.g., written) form, to be seen by others
and to be assessed. All of these factors can
influence its nature and quality.
In practice, the way in which even the defini-tion of reflection is used in educational situations
is often quite narrowly defined. For example, it
192
Getting the measure of reflection: considering matters of definition and depth
may be defined in terms of learning from recog-nised error or ineffectiveness in practice
5,6
and
it is often subject to constraining beliefs, for
exampl e, that reflection is only focused on the
self. People are often not aware that their under-standings of the term are so constrained.
Defining reflection in the ‘process’ manner
above does not, however, account for many
references to reflection in the literature. On a
close look at the manner in which ‘reflection’ is
described, Moon
1
concluded that most writers
are concerned with the outcome of the act of
reflection and not the process—and that it is
this distinction that appears to account for the
diversity of definition. Some of the outcomes
of reflection that are cited in the literature are
the following:
*
learning , knowledge and understanding
*
some form of acti on
* a proce ss of critical review
*
personal and continuing professional develop-ment
*
reflecti on on the process of learning or perso-nal functioning (me tacognition)
*
the buildin g of theory from observations in
practice situations
*
the making of decisions/resol ution of uncer-tainty, the solving of problems; empowerment
and emancipation
*
unexpe cted outcomes (e.g., images, ideas that
could be solutions to dilemmas or seen as crea-tive activity)
*
emotion (that can be an outcome or can be
part of the process)
*
clarification and the recognition that there is
a need for further reflection and so on.
Although ‘learning’ (as above) is deemed to be an
outcome of reflection in its own right, we could
say that all of the outcomes in the list are con-cerned with how we use understanding and
knowledge to achieve other purposes. In other
words, these factors link reflection with the pro-cess of learning.
As an addendum to this section on definition
of reflection, it might be appropriate to add what
must be the definitive definition of reflection as
developed in wizardry. The ‘pensieve’, as used in
the Harry Potter books, conceives of reflective
activity in a very helpful metaphor that has its
uses in the teaching context:
7
Harry stared at the stone basin…
‘What is it?’, Harry asked shakily.
‘This? It is called a pensieve’, said
Dumbledore. ‘I sometimes find, and I am
sure that you know the feelin g’, that
I simply have too many thou ghts and
memories cramme d into my mind…. At
these time’s, said Dumbled ore, indicatin g
the stone basin, ‘I use the pensieve. One
simply siphons the excess thoughts from
one’s mind, pours them into the basin
and examines them at one’s own leisure.
It becomes easier to spot patterns and links,
you understand, when they are in this
form’.
Rowling, 2000, pp. 518 519
TH E I NTRODUCTION O F
REFLECTION TO LEARNERS
The definitions above facilitate consideration
about the process of reflection, but simply
giving learners the definition and telling them
to get on w ith a reflective task proves not to
be eno ugh. Some learner s will go away and
get on with reflecting with no difficulty. They
may have always have written a per sonal jour-nal. Others learner s will ask ‘But what do you
want me to do?’ and, quite reasonably, they
might then request a demonstr ation of what
they should do. This is where we might recog-nise a common situation also among their
teaching staff. It is likely to be a teacher who
reflects easily who will have championed the
use of reflective activities—but coll eagues
involved also may understand reflection no
more than their students. There is no real rea-son why most teaching staff should know about
reflection any more than the learners with
whom they work.
There are a number of responses to the difficul-ties described above that go beyond the provision
193
Getting the measure of reflection: considering matters of definition and depth
of definitions of reflection. For example, Kolb,
8
Gibbs,
9
Johns,
10
Mo on
3
—resources
1,7
provide
structures that generally guide the processes of
reflecting. Such structures can be helpful to stu-dents in the beginning of reflective work, but
they should be seen as props to be dispensed
with as soon as possible. Generally, these structures
provide no guide to the achievement of better
quality reflection, and sometimes they might be
said to encourage a relatively superficial form of
reflection. A frequent report is that it is difficult
to get learners in a formal context to reflect at
other than superficial and descriptive levels.
11,1 2
The learning that results from superficial reflection
is also likely to be superficial.
The idea that there is a depth dimensio n to
reflection is not new,
13,14
but has not generally
impinged on the educational uses of reflecti on.
The practical application of the concept of
depth in reflection would seem to be important
as a means to improving the quality of reflec-tion. Probably, the best-known work on the
specification of the levels of reflection up to
now is that of Hatton and Smith.
15
Others
who have w orked in this area are Van Manen,
14
Mezirow,
16
Wedman and Martin,
17
Ross,
18
Hettich,
13
Sparkes-Langer et al.,
19
Spark es-Langer and Colton,
20
Kember et al.
21
and
Kember, Leung and associates.
22
Generally
speaking, the conceptions that underlie the
frameworks provided by those listed above are
similar (see later). Most of the frameworks are
designed largely as assessment tools, and it is in
a ‘back to front’ manner that they can be used
to help learners to deepen their reflecti on.
Also, the framewo rks do not directly provide
sample material.
It was to address the difficulty both of helping
learners to start with reflection and then—at a
la te r s ta ge— to de epen t he ir refl ec ti on th at th e
first of the series of exercises which is illustrated
below (Appendix 1) was developed. The exer-cises demonstrate the general concept of reflec-tion and also its ‘depth dimension’. They are
based on broad reading of the literature on
reflection, and in particular the work of those
cited above. The exercises consist of a brief sce-nario written initially descriptively and then at
two or three deeper levels of reflection. The first
ex er ci se w as devel oped i n o rde r to i ll us tr ate
reflective writing to a group of higher education
staff who wanted to apply for membership of the
Institute for Learning and Teaching in Higher
Education (‘The Park’, Moon).
23
A similar exer-cise was developed for use with students on a
work experience module, who are required to
reflect on their experiences of work placements
(‘The Presentation’, Moon).
24
For these two ear-lier exercises, a commentary was provided at the
end of the exercise, which describes the reflec-tive processes illustrated at each level, and how
these processes develop through the different
levels in the context of the scenario. At this stage,
on the basis of the experience of running these
exercises on multiple occasions with staff and
student groups and with further perusal of the
literature, a generic framework for reflective
writing was developed. The framework incor-porated descriptions of four levels of reflection.
The levels are descriptive writing, descriptive
writing with some reflection, reflective writing
(1) and reflective writing (2) (Appendix 2). Like
the exercises, the framework has been further
modified as it has been used. The levels in the
framework are not intended directly to match
the levels in the exercises—but are seen as mar-kers on a continuum against which the exercises
ca n be m atch ed. R efl ecti on i s n ot a pr eci se ar t.
It is important to be conscious of the purpose
for using an exercise on reflecti on of this type.
The purpose can be two-fold—both to intro-duce the practice of reflecti ve writing and to
show that there are different levels. It may be
that it is not initially appropriate to use the dee-per levels of some of the exercises to start with
(e.g., the fourth part of ‘The Park’), but to run
the exercise in two stages focusing in different
ways. Though t should also be given to the rela-tive depth of reflection that matches the needs
of any group of learners. For application to join
a professional body, for example, very deep ref-lection is probably not appropriate.
Three more exercises have since been devel-oped, ‘The Dance Lesson’ was designed for
PGCE students with a sports specialism
3
and
‘GP’s story’ was designed for medical or nurse
education. ‘The Worrying Tutorial’, which
relates to an academic situation, is in Appendix 1
194
Getting the measure of reflection: considering matters of definition and depth
below. The same instructions work for any of the
ex er ci se s ( se e b el ow ), a nd so me o f t he exerci se s
have three levels and some four. All now relate
to the framework for reflective writing. While
exercises have been developed specifically for par-ticular groups of learners (and their teachers), the
content of the scenario is not important, as the
f o cu s s ho ul d b e o n t he c h an gi ng q u al it i es o f r ef l e c -tion. In fact, some groups can become too
‘caught-up’ in the content of the ‘story’ and lose
their focus on the reflection. There is therefore
an argument for deliberately avoiding the use of
exercises with content that is relevant to that
group of learners.
These exercises have been used in many staff
deve lopment worksho ps across the UK and
New Zealand, and there has been plenty of evi-dence that the staff have subsequently used
them with their students. Generally , the exercises
seem to be enjoyable, and they generate useful
conversat ions about the nature of reflection and
reflecti ve writing. The y can be used with large
numbers and have bee n employed in such
‘unfr iendly’ environm ents as full-tiered lecture
theatres.
The exercises demonstrate how we can use-fully use story as an aid to teaching and learning
in higher education.
25
APPENDIX 1: THE W ORRYING
TUTORIAL
Instructi ons
The procedure for the exercise is described as a
group process, though it can be used individu-ally. The process works best with the pre sence
of a facilitator, who is not engaged in the exer-cise. It takes around three quarters of an hour.
Learners are given copies of the exercise
(Append ix 1) and the reflecti ve framework
(Append ix 2), but they should be told not to
leaf through the pages other than as instructed.
The exercise works better when people follow
the instructions—in particular, not beginning
the discussions (see below) until everyone has
read the releva nt account. The facilitator should
control this. The groups can be told that ther e
are several accounts of an incident, and that
they w ill be reading them one after the other,
with time after each session of reading for dis-cussion about the reflective content of the
account.
*
The exercise is introduced as means to
demonstrate reflecti on and/or depths/ levels
of reflection, and deeper reflection probably
equates with better learning .
*
Small groups are formed (no more than six
in each).
*
The gro ups are told to turn to the first
account and read it quiet ly to themselves,
considering which features they think are
reflective.
*
When it is evident that most people have read
the first account, the groups are invited to dis-cuss the account and identify where and how
it is reflecti ve. They are given about 7 min
for each discussion session, though they may
need less time for the earlier accounts.
*
After the discu ssion session, the participant s
are asked to read the next account in the
sequence (and they are reminde d not to
turn pages beyond the account in hand).
*
After the last account has been read and dis-cussed, groups are asked to go back through
all of the accounts and to identify features
of the reflecti on that progressively change
through the accounts. For example, the
accounts change from being ‘story’ to focus-ing on issues in the incident. In the deepest
account, there is more recognition that there
are multiple per spectives in viewing the issue,
etc. Somet imes there are changes between
two of the levels, but not through out all of
them. The groups are asked to list (e.g., on
flip chart paper) the ways in which the
accounts ‘deepen’.
*
In a plenary, the groups share their lists (as
above) and discuss the whole exercise. It is at
this stage that the participants can be referred
to the Framework for Reflective Writing,
which provides a general guide to features in
deepening reflection. The accounts are not
intended to accord directly with the stages
des cri bed.
If the exercise is used with staff, and if they
are likely to want to use it later with their own
students, it is worth having spare copies available
195
Getting the measure of reflection: considering matters of definition and depth
as participants tend to want to mark/underline
text on their copies as they do the exercise.
THE W ORRYING T UTORIAL
Material writ ten by Jenny Moon, Bournemouth
University It may be freely copied for use with
learners.
Ian is 28. He is in the middle of the final year
of a degree in biologica l sciences. He has
worked in an agricultural laboratory before his
degree programme, and has embarked on the
programme in order to take a post in agricul-tural research. Like many mature students, he
has responsi bilities at home that prove to be dis-tractions to his degree work. He has just seen
Pam, his tutor, for feedback on a recently
marked es say.
Account 1
I am gutted. I saw Pam this morning. She
wanted to talk about my ecology essay. She
was blunt. She said that I have not had any
‘good’ marks for work that I have done for
the past year and a half—but none have been
as near to failure as this one. She called this a
‘hairs breadth pass’, and she laid it on the line
that I need to put in more effort all round or
I will not be getting the degree that I need to
work on resea rch at Cummings . If I do not
get that job, I could well end up with the
same job that I did before and all this money
and effort will have been pointless.
It seems that my essay was too descriptive and
Pam tried to tell me what she meant by that.
The title asked me to discuss the concepts of
tolerance and limiting factors in relati on to
two named wild populations. I used Jencks
and Parner’s study of Abiniculus alba and
Cristom’s study ofChyrup s dipimus. We covered
the latter in a lecture and were given the refe r-ence for the other, so I thought they were all
right. Pam said that I should have found my
own exampl es. She says that that I write too
factually. I need to make it clear that I realise
that theories are not the same as facts. I need to
think about how I use references. At this level
I should question the data that I am working
with—I should analyse and criticise it—not just
accept it. She says that I am good at assembling
facts, but that is not good enough now. Pam
said that I should ask Tim if I can see some of
his recent essays in order to get the idea and
maybe I should go and see the study counsellor.
I used to be good at essays. It seems that suddenly
Iamnot.
I did really w ell in the first year of the degree.
I felt that I knew most of the material that w e
covered—I had learnt it in my day-to-da y
work, though sometimes I had to re-interpret
it for the this academic context. Essays used
just to flow out and I got good marks. I did do
some reading and I would add a few references.
I a m n ot c l e a r w he r e th ose a bi li ti es h av e g one
to. Suddenly I am not good any more. I suppose
that some of it is to do with the baby. Pam and
I did talk about how hard it is for me to study
since Angie had the baby last year. Angie was
ill over the pregnancy and after the birth. I was
up in the nights and so tired and now I cannot
concentrate at home, because the baby is on
her feet and all over everything. When I was try-ing to write the ecology essay she was teething
and was not sleeping in the evenings. It is really
hard being a student at this time in my life.
The younger ones just do not know how easy
they have got it.
I feel so gutted that I really do not know how
I can go home at present. Angie still thinks that
I am top of the class. I could not tell her. She
has such faith in me—and I must get the new
job in orde r to justify the hassle and exp ense
of going back into education.
Accoun t 2
Pam, my tutor , has talked with me about the
essay I did for ecology and my progre ss in gen-eral. I have to face up to the fact that the mark
was poor. If I do not do better, I will not get
the research job at Cummings —and will be
going back to the same job that I did before
the degree and getting the new job was the
whole point of doing the degree. I have felt so
bad about this session with Pam and what it
implie s for m e that I have not wanted to go
196
Getting the measure of reflection: considering matters of definition and depth
home this evening . I know it is because I do
not want to tell Angie that I am not as good
at study as she thinks I am. She has such faith
in me and I know that I am resistant to shaking
that faith. However, I can see that I need to
make some changes at home and, until I talk
to Angie, those changes w ill not make sense to
her. What do I do or say?
Pam knows the difficulties that I had at home
in the past year—in particular, the distractions
that occurred with the pregnancy, birth and
with Angie’s health. I suppose that my work
began to deteriorate from around that time. I
knew it was happening. Pam reminded me of
several occasions when she told me that I should
be doing some reading around the lectures, but
I somehow thought that I would get through
and did not bother too much. I thought that a
f e w p oo re r m ar k s w o u l d n ot b e a p ro bl em
because I had done so well before and that really
I did know how to write good essays.
Maybe I need to think about what Pam said
about my essay. She says it is too descriptive
and not analytical and discursive. She says that
I am good at ‘assembling facts’, but that is not
good enough for now and I should use my
own examples—not those given in lectures.
I need to think about what she means by that.
I suppose that it means that I can write well
but that is not well enough now and I need to
be more original. W hat does she mean by analyse
a nd discuss? S he al so sa ys I n eed t o dist inguish
between theory and f act. I s uppose that there i s
a difference that I ne ed to consider a nd w hich
may h ave s omething to do with the w ays I use
referencing t hat she also mentioned. It seems
that I need to change the way in which I see
the t ask of writing essa ys. I will ask Tim how
he writ es such good essays. Pam says that Tim’s
essays are a good example. She also m entioned
the s tudy skills person, some books and coming
back to her w hen I have thought about it.
So here I am, in the middle of my last year
and in danger of not doing well enough to
achieve what I must achieve for the future wel-fare of my famil y. What once seemed simple
does not seem simple any more, and it is all
contorted by how well I did in the first year,
and the frustrations (and joys, of course ) of hav-ing a new baby. There is something about the
image that Angie has of me as the great success
story. Have I got to change that? All these
things are floating around in there. I hope that
they sort themselves out.
Account 3
I want to think about the tutorial I had with
Pam. It was ab out my ecology essay and the
very low marks for it. It was a seriously low
mark. Pam also talked m ore gen erally about
my lack of achievemen t. I noted down what
she said about it, but it hurts to acknowledge
it. Basically, Pam says that the essay and my cur-rent prospects are both poor, and she points out
the increasing likelihood that I will not get a
sufficiently good degree to get the research job
at Cummings. It is the purpose of getting that
job that brought me to university with all the
sacrifices that has meant. When I look at the
notes I wrote , my anxiety levels shoot up and
I know I have to act. On previous occasio ns
(not as heavy as this) I have just thought about
it a bit, and then I suppose I have gone back
to the old assumptions that I would be all right
because I am really a good student.
Where did those assumptions come from?
I was well ahead in the first year and I had no
problem in putting down material that was
acceptable in essays. That might link up with
what Pam said today about me being good at
‘assembling facts’. Maybe that is what was
wanted in the first year of the course and maybe
she is really saying that doing that is not accept-able now. I am not totally clear from what Pam
said what is wanted now—but it seems that
most of my classmates do know. I will list the
things that Pam said about my essay and work
on them until I really understand what I need
to do to write a good essay. Pam talked about
things I could do. I must do them.
Now I start to think, thing s begin to link up.
Pam and I talked about how disruptive past year
was for my studies—with Angie being pregnant
and ill, and with Meg’s birth. Then, Pam was
very symp athetic and even today I got into the
‘poor me, how hard it is to be an adult student’
197
Getting the measure of reflection: considering matters of definition and depth
stuff again. But then I am thinking that that atti-tude will not get me the degree and the job
I want, and I need to see it now as a conven ient
excuse. I did well in the first year because
I knew the stuff, and then rested on my success
when everythi ng went haywire. I assume d that
I could just re-engage—b ut I did not realise
that the game had changed. What is asked for
now is somethi ng different—not just the assem-bly of facts any more.
That brings me to why I am still in the library
this evening and it is late and I have not gone
home. I do not want to go home and tell Angie
that I am not doing as well as she thinks. She
assumes that I am still doing brilliantly—th ough
past year she did question how I could be doing
so well on so little work. I need a big shift in
thinking—fast—an d Angie is where I start.
I need to tell her honestly about the tutorial,
the feedback and my disappoin tment in myself.
I am not the success that both of us assumed.
I need her support so that I can get through
this next 6 months and into the job, and Angie’s
turn will come.
I list what I need to do apart from talking
with Angie: I need to do to find out how to
write a good essay at this stage in my degree.
I need to find out what it m eans to ‘discuss’
and analyse, and to sort out what a ‘theory’ is
in ecology. I realise that I have never quite
understood why we have theories about some
things and we simply ‘know’ about other
things. It seems that there is somethi ng different
in ecology from the stuff that seemed ‘factual’ in
the basic biology stuff. I need to think about
these things and form them into clear questions
so that I can find out what I need to know and
how to put it on paper in an acceptable way.
I think that the referencing will fall into place
if I get these things sorted. Asking Tim may
help only if I am clear about what I need to
know. I will go back to Pam when I done the
thinking as well. Pam mentioned a couple of
books and a website and the study skills per -son (make appointment tomorrow). There was
also that research student I talked to in the bar
the other night. I think I could talk more with
him—but I need to be focussed about the infor-mation that I need.
APPE NDIX 2.
A F RAMEWORK FOR
REFLECTIVE WRITING
This material is reproduced from Moon , 2004. It is
freely photocopiable.
Descriptive writing
This account is descriptive and it contains little
reflection. It may tell a story, but from one
point of view at a time, and generally one point
at a time is made. Ideas tend to be linked by
the sequence of the account/story rather than
by meaning. The account describes what hap-pened, sometimes mentionin g past experiences,
sometimes anticipatin g the future—bu t all in
the context of an account of the event.
There may be references to emotional reac-tions, but they are not exp lored and not related
to behavi our.
The account may relate to ideas or external
informat ion, but these are not considered or
questioned, and the pos sible impact on beha-viour or the meaning of events is not
mentioned .
There is little attempt to focus on particu-lar issues. Most points are made with similar
weight.
The writing could hardly be deemed to be
reflective at all. It could be a reasonably written
account of an event that would serve as a basis
on which reflection might start, though a good
description that precedes reflective accounts will
tend to be more focused and to signal points
and issues for further reflection.
Descriptive accoun t with some reflection
This is a descriptive account that signals points
for reflection while not actually showing much
reflection.
The basic account is descriptive in the man-ner of description above. There is little addition
of ideas from outside the event, reference to
alternative viewpoints or attitudes to others,
commen t and so on. However, the account is
198
Getting the measure of reflection: considering matters of definition and depth
more than just a story. It is focused on the event
as if there is a big question or ther e are questions
to be asked and answered. Points on which
reflecti on could occ ur are signalled.
There is recognition of the worth of further
exploring, but it does not go very far. In other
words, asking the questions makes it more
than a descriptive account, but the lack of
attempt to respond to the questions means that
there is little actual analysis of the events.
The questioning does begin to suggest a
‘standing back from the event’ in (usually) iso-lated areas of the account.
There is a sense of recognition this is an inci-dent from which learning can be gained—but
the reflection does not go sufficie ntly deep to
enab le the learning to begin to occ ur.
Reflectiv e writing (1)
There is description but it is focused with parti-cular aspects acce ntuated for reflecti ve com-ment. There may be a sense that the material
is being mulled around. It is no longer a
straightforwa rd account of an event , but it is
definit ely reflective.
There is evide nce of external ideas or infor-mation and where this oc curs, the material is
subjected to reflection.
The account shows some analysis, and there
is recognition of the worth of exploring motives
or reasons for behaviour.
Where relevant, there is willingness to be cri-tical of the action of self or others. There is
likely to be some self-questioning and w illing-ness also to recognise the overall effect of the
event on self. In other words, there is some
‘standing back’ from the event.
There may be recognition that things might
look different from other perspectives, and
that views can change with time or the emo-tional state. The existence of several alternative
points of view may be acknowledged, but not
analysed.
In other words, in a relatively limited way the
account may recognise that frames of reference
affect the manner in w hich we reflect at a given
time, but it does not deal with this in a way that
links it effectively to issues about the quality of
personal judgement.
Reflective writing (2)
Description now only se rves the process of
reflection, covering the issues for reflection
and noting their context. There is clear evi-dence of stand ing back from an event, and there
is mulling over and internal dialogue.
The account shows deep reflection, and it
incorporates a recognition that the frame of
reference with which an event is viewed can
change.
A metacognitive stance is taken (i.e., critical
awareness of one’s own processes of mental
functioning—includ ing reflection).
The account probably recognises that event s
exist in a historical or social context, which
may be influent ial on a person’s reaction to
them. In other words, multiple perspectives
are noted.
Self-questioning is evide nt (an ‘internal dia-logue’ is set up at times), deliberatin g between
different views of personal behavi our and that
of others).
The view and motives of others are taken
into account and considered against those of
the writer.
There is recognition that prior experience,
thoughts (own and other’s) interact with the
production of current behaviour.
There is observation that there is learning to
be gained from the experience, and points for
learning are noted .
There is recognition that the personal frame
of reference can change according to the emo-tional state in which it is written, the acquisition
199
Getting the measure of reflection: considering matters of definition and depth
of new informat ion, the review of ideas and the
effect of time passing.
The effective of these variables on per sonal
judgement is taken into account in m aking
judgements.
Similar exercises are to be found in Moon.
3,26
NOTE ADDED I N P ROOF
Exercises such a s ‘the worried student’ are a lso a vail-able as a f ree d own l oad a t http:// www.cemp.ac.
uk/research/learningjournals, h ttp://www. cemp.
ac.u k/research/reflectivelearning a nd similar e xam-ples on critical thinking at http:/ /www.cemp.ac.
uk/research/critical thinking.
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