You can choose to carry out an interview-based, small-scale research project on the same topic of “Traditional salary schedules versus diversified salary schedules.” In such as case, you will read about the pros and cons of each type of salary schedules, prepare interview questions, and get the perceptions of one or two teachers on these two types. Analyze and discuss the findings and provide some recommendations.
221
CHAPTER
11
If you like to argue, you will enjoy writing position papers and argument essays. The
purpose of a position paper or argument essay is to explain both sides of a controversy
and then argue for one side over the other. This two-sided approach is what
makes position papers and argument essays different from commentaries (Chapter 10).
A commentary usually only expresses the author’s personal opinion about a current
issue or event. A position paper or argument essay explains both sides and discusses
why one is stronger or better than the other.
Your goal is to fairly explain your side and your opponents’ side of the issue, while
highlighting the differences between these opposing views. You need to use solid reasoning
and factual evidence to persuade your readers that your view is more valid or
advantageous than your opponents’ view.
In college, your professors will ask you to write position papers and argument
essays to show that you understand both sides of an issue and can support one side or
the other. In the workplace, corporate position papers are used to argue for or against
business strategies or alternatives. The ability to argue effectively is a useful skill that
will help you throughout your life.
Position Papers
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Summary of
opponents’ position
Limitations of
opponents’ position
Your understanding
of the issue
Reasons why your
understanding is better
than your opponents’
understanding
Introduction
Conclusion
Major point of difference
Opponents’ position
Your position
Major point of difference
Opponents’ position
Your position
Reasons why your
understanding is better
than your opponents’
understanding
Introduction
Conclusion
•••
Position Papers
This diagram shows two basic organizations for a position paper, but other
arrangements of these sections will work too. In the pattern on the left, the opponents’
position is described up front with its limitations; then your own position is explained
with its strengths. In the pattern on the right, you make a point-by-point comparison,
explaining why your position is better than your opponents’. You should alter this
organization to fit your topic, angle, purpose, readers, and context.
222
AT–A–GLANCE
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Overview 223
Overview
Arguing is fun, but you need to argue fairly and reasonably if you want to win over
your readers. The strongest position papers and argument essays present both sides
of an issue as objectively as possible and then persuade readers that one side is superior
to the other. They tend to have the following features:
• An introduction that states the issue being debated, identifies the issue’s two or
more sides, and usually makes an explicit claim (thesis) that the position paper
or argument essay will support.
• An objective summary of your opponents’ understanding of the issue.
• A point-by-point discussion of the limitations of your opponents’ understanding.
• A summary of your side’s understanding of the issue.
• A point-by-point discussion of why your side’s understanding is superior to your
opponents’ understanding.
• A conclusion that drives home your main point and looks to the future.
This genre tends to be organized two ways, as shown on page 222. With some
topics, you may need to show that there are more than two sides to the argument. In
these cases, the pattern on the left can be expanded to include summaries and limitations
of these other positions. It is best, though, to try to boil the issue down to two
major sides. Otherwise, your readers will find it difficult to keep the sides of the argument
straight.
ONE STUDENT’S WORK
Position Papers
Allowing Guns on Campus Will Prevent Shootings, Rape
Tyler Ohmann
A graduate student leaving an evening class walks along the poorly lit
sidewalk to the parking lot—it is a long, cold walk in the pitch-black night, and
the student grows wary as shadows begin lurking in the distance. Suddenly,
someone jumps out in front of the student, immediately threatening her with
force. Before the student can react, she is raped and robbed. This is a very
The writer sets the
scene to grab
readers.
continued
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224 CHAPTER 11 Position Papers
scary scenario, and one that happens on the SCSU campus every year. It
seems like every week we get an e-mail citing another attack on students
somewhere on or near campus. However, all of these attacks could be
prevented if we allow students to carry guns as a means of self-defense.
Although safety is my biggest concern, there are other arguments that
point to this solution as well.
First, it is our Second Amendment right to bear arms. Although debates
have gone on about how it should be interpreted, I believe it means that if
law abiding, trained and eligible citizens would like to carry a gun with them
in self-defense, they should be able to. Right now, that does not include
campus. “The law, as it stands now, does not prohibit carry on campus,”
said Terence McCloskey, SCSU campus leader for Students for Concealed
Carry on Campus (SCCC). “It allows universities to establish rules restricting
carry on campus by students and staff.” According to the March 2007 Safety
and Security bulletin in section 2.1, “Alcoholic beverages, non-regulated
drugs, explosives, guns and ammunition are not permitted on SCSU
property.” This rule, I believe, is a violation of my Second Amendment rights.
The second reason guns should be allowed is because it will give
students, such as the one in the scenario, a sense of security and comfort
when they are in a normally uncomfortable situation or area. The opposition
would say that although the person with the gun is comfortable, it makes
others around that person uncomfortable or afraid to speak up in class. Well,
let me ask you this: How often do you feel uncomfortable or scared about
someone near you having a gun when you go to a movie theater? Probably not
too often. However, McCloskey said that 1 percent of Minnesotans have a
permit to carry guns. “That means that every time they go to a movie theater
with around 200 people inside, they are sitting with two people that are
carrying a gun,” McCloskey said. There are people all around us that have
guns, and it seems to be handled just fine. After all, the 1 percent that do
carry guns have to meet certain requirements—guns are not handed out to
just anyone.
Minnesota law requires everyone to have a permit in order to own a
handgun, and to obtain one you must be 21 years of age, be a U.S. citizen,
have training in the safe use of a pistol, not be a felon, not have a domestic
violence offense in the last 10 years, not be a person convicted of stalking, as
well as many other restrictions. You can find these laws on the State of
Minnesota Web site.
The final reason that guns should be allowed to be carried by students
who obtain a permit is that it could prevent a tragic shooting like the one at
Virginia Tech a couple of years ago. “Our best and our brightest are in an
Here is hismain
point.
Point-by-point
comparison of two
positions.
Opponents’ views are
presented fairly.
Opponents’ views are
presented fairly.
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Inventing Your Position
Paper’s Content
When writing a position paper or argument essay, you should try to summarize both
sides of the issue as fairly as possible. If readers sense that you are distorting your opponents’
view, they might doubt whether your views are trustworthy. So let your facts
and reasoning do the talking for you. If your position is truly stronger, you should be
able to explain both sides fairly and then demonstrate to readers why your side is the
stronger one.
Inquiring: Identifying Points of Contention
To begin generating content for your position paper, first identify the major points on
which you and your opponents disagree. A brainstorming list like the one shown in
Figure 11.1 on page 226 is often the best way to identify these major points.
Use two columns. In the left column, write “My position” and list all the arguments
you can think of to support your case. In the right column, write “My opponents’
position” and list your opponents’ best arguments for their side of the case.
When listing your opponents’ ideas, you should do so from their perspective. What
are their strongest arguments? What would they likely say to defend their position?
When you have filled out your brainstorming lists, put checkmarks next to the
two to five most important points on which you and your opponents seem to disagree.
These are called “points of contention” between your side and your opponents’
side of the argument.
Researching: Finding Out What Others Know
Now it is time to do some research. You can use your two-column brainstorming list
as a guide to doing research on your topic. Collect sources that support both sides of
the argument. You should look for a variety of online, print, and empirical sources.
Inventing Your Position Paper’s Content 225
unprotected environment and are essentially being led to the slaughter,” said
Keith Moum in an article in the Missourian. “It’s not as graphic as that, but it
clearly shows that there is an element out there that has targeted college
students, and campus policy has left them with no way to defend
themselves.” If guns had been allowed on that campus, that tragedy may
have been either averted or at least minimized.
So, in order to make the SCSU campus and other campuses nationwide a
safe, comfortable environment for everyone, we need to allow the ability to carry
a gun on campus. Not only will itmake a student carrying a gun feel safe, it can
prevent a tragic shooting, a robbery, or a rape. It is our right. Let us exercise it.
The main point is
driven home.
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226 CHAPTER 11 Position Papers
Students, faculty, and staff will feel less safe on
campus if guns are allowed.
Alcohol could cause a lapse in judgment.
Campus police don’t want guns on campus.
Universities may be liable if an accident happens.
In a shooting incident, police cannot tell the criminals
from the people defending themselves with guns.
Bullets from a defender’s gun may strike innocent
people in a classroom.
Students are less mature and may use their guns to
threaten others or play games.
Some students will carry guns without a concealedcarry
permit.
Guns on campus will cause parents to fear sending
their students to our university.
Guns locked in cars won’t be any use in a shooting.
Less stable students are the ones most interested in
carrying guns.
We can strengthen security if campus is thought to
be unsafe.
Accidents do happen, and the university will be liable.
More shootings on college campuses have happened
recently.
Gun-free campuses disarm citizens who could end
campus shootings.
Violent people would think twice about shooting at a
campus.
More mentally ill students are going to college
these days.
Universities would not be such easy targets for
shooters.
A shooting could be ended quickly.
It may take minutes for security to arrive at the
scene of a shooting.
Gun accidents are very rare.
Gun ownership is a constitutional right.
People with guns would need to be licensed and
weapons concealed.
People will carry guns anyway, so it’s best to have
it regulated.
Only way to stop someone with a gun is to use a gun.
Guns on campus could be left in car.
People will feel more confident and less scared on
campus.
People will be able to be on campus at night.
My position: Concealed weapons on campus
are a greater risk than no handguns on
campus.
My opponents’ position: Students, faculty,
and staff should be able to carry concealed
handguns on campus.
FIGURE 11.1 Brainstorming to Identify Major Points of Contention
When brainstorming about your topic, just write down anything about your topic
that comes to mind.
Again, put yourself in your opponents’ place as you research their side of the
issue. If you were your opponent, how would you build your argument? What would
be your best points? What kinds of sources would you use to support your points?
After all, if you only look for sources that support your side of the argument, there is
a good chance you will miss your opponents’ best reasons for holding their opinion.
Then it would be easy for your opponents to undermine your argument by showing
that you have not considered one or more important ideas.
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Online Sources. The Internet can be helpful for generating content, but you need to
be especially careful about your sources when you are preparing to write a position
paper or argument essay. Countless people will offer their opinions on blogs and Web
sites, but these sources are often heavily biased and may provide little support to back
up their opinions. When researching, you should look for factual sources on the Internet
and avoid sources that are too biased. Also, keep an eye out for credible television
documentaries and radio broadcasts on your subject, because they will often
address both sides of the issue in a journalistic way.
Print Sources. Print documents will likely be your most reliable sources of factual
information. Look for magazines, academic journals, and books, because these sources
tend to be more careful about their facts and have less bias. Through your library’s Web
site, try using the Readers’ Guide to find magazine articles and periodical indexes to find
academic articles. Your library’s online catalog is a good place to search for books.
Empirical Sources. Facts you generate yourself will be very useful for backing up
your claims about your topic. Set up an interview with an expert on your topic, or create
a survey that will generate some data. Do some field observations. If you really
want to dig up some interesting information, set up an interview with an expert who
holds an opposing view to your own. This kind of interview will help you understand
both sides of the issue much better.
Remember, you are looking for information that is credible and not too biased. It
is fine to use sources that make a strong argument for one side or the other, but you
need to make sure these sources are backed up with facts, data, and solid sources.
Organizing and Drafting
Your Position Paper
The key to organizing a position paper or argument essay is to remember that you
need to tell both sides of the story. As you are drafting your argument, it might help
to imagine yourself in a debate with another person (Figure 11.2, page 228). If you
were in a public debate, how would you express your best points and win over the
audience? Meanwhile, try to anticipate your opponents’ best arguments for their
position.
The Introduction
Identify your topic and offer some background information to help your readers understand
what you are writing about. State your purpose clearly by telling readers that
you are going to explain both sides of the issue and then demonstrate why yours is
stronger. You might offer your main point (thesis) here in the introduction, or you
can save it for the conclusion, especially if you think readers might resist your argument.
Look for a good grabber to catch readers’ attention at the beginning of your
introduction.
Organizing and Drafting Your Position Paper 227
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228 CHAPTER 11 Position Papers
Summary and Limitations of Your
Opponents’ Position
Here is the tough part. Try to explain your opponents’ side of
the issue in a straightforward way. You do not need to argue
for their side, but you should explain their side in a way that
your readers would consider fair and reasonable. Where possible,
use quotes from your opponents’ arguments to explain
their side of the issue. Paraphrasing or summarizing their argument
is fine too, as long as you do it fairly.
As straightforwardly as possible, explain the limitations
of your opponents’ position. What exactly are they missing?
What have they neglected to consider? What are they ignoring
in their argument? Again, you want to highlight these limitations
as objectively as possible. This is not the place to be
sarcastic or dismissive. You want to fairly point out the weaknesses
in your opponents’ argument.
Your Understanding of the Issue
Then it’s your turn. Explain your side of the argument by taking
your readers through the two to five points of contention,
showing them why your side of the argument is stronger. Here is where you need to
use your sources to back up your argument. You need to use good reasoning, examples,
facts, and data to show readers why your opinion is more credible.
Reasons Why Your Understanding Is Stronger. Before moving to your conclusion,
you might spend a little time comparing and contrasting your opponents’
views with your own. Briefly, go head to head with your opponents, showing readers
why your view is stronger. At this point, it is all right to concede some points to
your opponents. Your goal is to show readers that your view is stronger on balance.
In other words, both sides probably have their strengths and weaknesses. You want
to show that your side has more strengths and fewer weaknesses than your opponents’
side.
Conclusion
Bring your argument to a close by stating or restating your thesis and looking to the
future. Here is where you want to drive your main point (thesis) home by telling your
readers exactly what you believe. Then show how your position leads to a better future
than your opponents’ position. Overall, your conclusion should be brief (a paragraph
in most position papers).
The diagram on page 222 shows two possible patterns for organizing your position
paper or argument essay. As you draft your position paper, you might come up
with a better pattern that fits your topic. No matter how you organize your position
paper, the key is to tell both sides of the issue as fairly as possible.
FIGURE 11.2 Imagining a Debate
with Your Opponents
When drafting a position paper or
argument essay, sometimes it helps to
imagine yourself debating an opponent.
How would you win over the audience?
What might your opponent say, and how
would you counter?
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Choosing an Appropriate Style
The style of your position paper will help you distinguish your side from your opponents’
side. Even though your goal is to be factually fair to your opponents, there
is nothing wrong with using style to make your side sound more appealing and exciting.
Use Plain Style to Describe Your Opponents’ Position
You should not be sarcastic or dismissive of your opponents’ side of the argument.
Instead, describe the other side’s argument as plainly as possible. In Chapter 16,
“Choosing a Style,” you will find helpful strategies for writing plainly, like putting the
subjects of your sentences up front and using active verbs. You will also find techniques
for writing better paragraphs that use clear topic sentences. If you use these
plain style techniques to describe your opponents’ side of the argument, it will sound
like you are fairly and objectively summarizing their views.
Use Similes, Metaphors, and Analogies When
Describing Your Position
When you are describing your side of the argument, you want to present your case as
visually as possible. Similes, metaphors, and analogies are a great way to help your
readers visualize your argument.
A simile compares something unfamiliar to something familiar:
Simile (X Is Like Y)
A college campus in which students are armed would be like a tense Old
West frontier town.
Sharing music is like lending a good book to a friend, not pirating a ship on
the high seas.
Metaphor (X Is Y)
If a shooting incident did occur, the classroom would turn into a shooting
gallery, with armed students and police firing away at anyone with a gun in
his or her hand. No one would be able to tell the difference between the original
shooter and students with their weapons drawn.
The purpose of the music industry’s lawsuits is to throw a few unfortunate
college students to the lions. That way, they can hold up a few bloody carcasses
to scare the rest of us.
Analogy (X Is to Y Like A Is to B)
For some people, a gun has the same comforting effect as a safety blanket to
a baby. Neither a gun nor a blanket will protect you from those imaginary
monsters, but both can give you a make-believe feeling of security.
Choosing an Appropriate Style 229
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230 CHAPTER 11 Position Papers
The music industry’s lawsuits are like your old Aunt Martha defending her tin
of chocolate chip cookies at the church potluck. The industry offers a plate of
delicious songs, but only the “right people” are allowed to enjoy them. College
students aren’t the right people because we don’t have enough money.
Try some of these “persuasive style” techniques to enhance the power of your argument.
Similes, metaphors, and analogies will make your writing more visual and
colorful, and they will also help you come up with new ways to think and talk about
your topic. You can learn more about persuasive style in Chapter 16, “Choosing a
Style.”
Use Top-Down Paragraphs
Your argument needs to sound confident, and your readers should be able to find
your major points easily. So, in your paragraphs, put each major point in the first or
second sentence. Don’t put your major points in the middle of your paragraphs or at
the end because your readers won’t find them easily. A top-down style will make you
sound more confident, because you are stating your major claims and then proving
them.
Define Unfamiliar Terms
Your readers may or may not be familiar with the topic of your argument. So if you use
any specialized or technical terms, you should provide quick parenthetical or sentence
definitions to explain them.
Sentence Definition
A conceal-carry permit is the legal authorization that allows private citizens to
carry a handgun or other weapon on their person or in a secure place nearby.
Peer-to-peer file sharing involves using a network of computers to store and
share files without charge.
Parenthetical Definitions
Colleges have traditionally invoked an “opt-out” statute, a law that allows the
ban of weapons where posted, to keep concealed handguns off their campuses.
Music sharing should become illegal when a person burns the songs (i.e.,
puts them on a CD) and sells them to someone else.
Designing Your Position Paper
Position papers and argument essays tend to be written for college courses, so the
design expectations are not high. More and more, though, you will find that your
professors appreciate the addition of helpful visuals and the use of good page de-
JOHN_7441_CH11_pp221-246.qxd 9/16/09 9:39 AM Page 230
sign. If your work looks professional, they will likely have a more favorable impression
of it.
Use Descriptive Headings. Each of the major sections in your position paper
should start with a clear heading that identifies what the section is about. For example,
you could use headings like these:
The Case for Allowing Concealed Guns on Campus
The Limitations of Allowing Guns on Campus
Why Concealed Guns on Campus Are Dangerous
Conclusion: Why the Risks of Concealed Weapons Aren’t Worth It
You might use bold type to help your headings stand out, and you might use a larger
font size where appropriate. Make sure your headings are formatted consistently.
Add Photographs and Illustrations. If you are writing about a local issue or an
issue with a local angle, you might grab a digital camera and take a few pictures to use
in your paper. The Internet might also be a good place to download a few pictures and
illustrations to add a visual element to your text.
In your document, make sure you label your visuals with a number and title, and
include a caption to explain them. If you download a photograph or other illustration
from the Internet, you will need to cite your source in the caption and in your bibliography.
If you want to put your position paper on the Internet, you will need to ask permission
from the owners of the photograph to use it on your Web site.
Include Helpful Graphs, Diagrams, and Charts. Position papers often discuss
trends in our society, so you might look for ways to use graphs that illustrate those
trends. If you collected data or found data on the Internet, you might create a graph or
chart to present that data visually. Or, if you found a helpful graph on the Internet,
you could use it in your own document, as long as you cite it properly. Graphs and
charts should have a title, and you should use numbers in your written text to refer
readers to the visual (e.g., “In Figure 2, the graph shows . . .”).
Design the Page to Make It More Readable and Attractive. Let’s be honest. A
double-spaced, 1-inch margin essay just looks boring. Your professors might appreciate
your efforts to design a document that is more readable and more attractive (Figure
11.3, page 232). A header or footer would be nice. Maybe you could use two columns
instead of one. Your headings could be bolder and more colorful. Of course, if your
professor asks for something specific like “Your essay must use 12-point Times, be
double-spaced, and use 1-inch margins,” then you will need to format it that way. But if
there are no guidelines, you might ask whether designing the document is acceptable.
Number the Pages. Page numbers might seem like a simple thing, but they are
helpful when discussing a position paper with other students or with your professor.
Your word processor can add them automatically to the top or bottom of each page.
Designing Your Position Paper 231
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232 CHAPTER 11 Position Papers
Revising and Editing Your
Position Paper
As you draft your position paper or argument essay, your ideas will evolve. Some shift
in your opinion is natural because writing about something gives you the opportunity
to think about it in greater depth and consider other viewpoints. Drafting your argument
will also force you to back up your claims, which may cause you to rethink your
position a little.
Now that you are finished drafting, you need to spend time revising and “revisioning”
your argument to make sure the whole paper holds together. In other
FIGURE 11.3
Designing a Position Paper or Argument Essay
Your position paper doesn’t need to look boring and hard to read. The designers of this paper on
campus violence use headings, bullets, indentation, and columns to make the text look more
accessible.
JOHN_7441_CH11_pp221-246.qxd 9/16/09 9:39 AM Page 232
words, you don’t want to argue one thing at the beginning of the position paper and
then argue something a little different at the end. The whole argument needs to work
together to prove your main point or thesis.
Remove Any Digressions. When arguing, you might find yourself temporarily
drifting off topic. These moments are called digressions, and you should remove them
from the final version of your paper. Check each paragraph to make sure you are discussing
your topic and not going off in a direction that expands or sidetracks your
argument.
Back-Check the Evidence for Your Claims. Make sure your claims are backed up
with solid support. If you make a claim about your position or your opponents’, that
statement should be followed up with facts, data, examples, reasoning, or quotations.
Short paragraphs are usually a signal that you are not backing up your claims, because
such paragraphs typically include only a claim with minimal support.
Improve the Flow of Your Sentences. Try reading your draft out loud to yourself
or someone else. Mark any places where you stumble or hear something that doesn’t
sound right. Then use the “plain style” methods discussed in Chapter 16, “Choosing a
Style,” to make your sentences flow better.
Make Your Writing More Visual. Look for places where you can use more detail
and color to bring your writing to life. Describe things and people. Look for places
where you can use similes and metaphors to add a visual component to your writing.
Ask a friend or roommate to read through your position paper to highlight places
where you could revise. Also, your university may have a Writing Lab where you can
get help with locating places in your essay that need revision.
Revising and editing are critical to developing solid position papers and argument
essays because your readers (i.e., your professors or supervisors) place a high
value on clear, thoughtful writing. If they sense that you did not revise and edit your
work, they will rate your work lower.
Revising and Editing Your Position Paper 233
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A rebuttal counters or refutes an argument. Rebuttals often appear as letters to the
editor. They are also used in the workplace to argue against potentially damaging
reviews, evaluations, position papers, and reports. Knowing how to write a rebuttal
is an important part of defending your beliefs, projects, and research.
The main difference between a rebuttal and a position paper is that a rebuttal
responds directly to the points made in the original argument. After responding to
your opponent’s argument point by point, you then offer a better counterargument.
Here are some strategies for writing a successful rebuttal:
Review your opponent’s argument briefly. Objectively summarize the original
argument’smain point and itsmajor claims.
Challenge any hidden assumptions behind your opponent’s claims. Look for
unstated assumptions in each major claim of your opponent’s argument. These are
weak points that you can challenge.
Challenge the facts. If the author cites any facts, locate the original source to see
if any data or details are outdated, inaccurate, exaggerated, or taken out of context.
If the author has no supporting facts, then you can point that out in your rebuttal.
Challenge the authority of the sources. If possible, question whether the
author’s sources are truly authoritative on the issue. Unless a source is rock solid,
you can question the reliability of the information taken from it.
Look for logical fallacies. Logical fallacies are forms of weak reasoning that you
can use to challenge your opponents’ ideas. You can learn more about logical
fallacies in Chapter 22, “Using Argumentative Strategies.”
Offer a solid counterargument. Offer a different understanding of the issue
supported by authoritative research.
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