Change Management Models
Order Description
Review the change models presented in Chapter 8 of the Palmer textbook. Using attributes from these models, create a unique change management model that would be most effective for your organization and justify why this model would be effective.
Chapter 8
Implementing Change: Change Management, Contingency, and Processual Approaches
Learning objectives
On completion of this chapter you should be able to:
• Appreciate more clearly the organizational change approaches underpinning the director and navigator images of managing change.
• Understand the change management approach to change.
• Outline contingency approaches to change.
• Appreciate current debates between OD and change management approaches to change.
• Be familiar with the processual approach to managing change.
• Reflect upon your own approach to managing change.
This chapter continues from the previous chapter by considering the other two images of managing change, the director and navigator images, which also have strong foundations in the organizational change field (as distinct from the organization theory field) and also assume, in various ways, that the change manager has an important influence on the initiation, support, and outcomes of organizational change.
We commence this chapter by considering the director image. This image underpins the change management approaches that are often associated with the work of many large consulting companies. Adherents to these approaches take a strategic view of organizational change and make no apology for taking a pragmatic, managerialist view of how to go about achieving lasting organizational change. Within the change management field are a variety of models to choose from, each with a series of steps that need to be followed. One consequence of this variety is that it is not clear which change management model should be followed or what criteria should be used to choose among the models offered.
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Addressing this problem are contingency approaches. These are still underpinned by the director image, but rather than claiming to have the “one best approach” for all types of organizational change, contingency change theorists and practitioners take an “it depends” approach in which the style of change, especially the style of change leadership, is dependent on the scale of the proposed change and the readiness of staff to receive it.
However, this notion of getting the right “fit” between the type of change and the manner for achieving it runs counter to processual approaches to viewing change. Drawing on the navigator image, these approaches see change as a political and disputed process that emerges over time and varies according to the context in which it is attempted.1 These approaches are outlined in the discussion that follows.
Director Image of Managing Change: Change Management and Contingency Approaches
In this section, we consider first a variety of change management approaches to organizational change and debates associated with whether they have supplanted the OD approaches discussed in the previous chapter. We then discuss the contingency approaches and consider why their impact has been less prevalent than the change management approaches.
Change Management Approaches
Common to the various change management approaches is that they provide multistep models of how to achieve large-scale, transformational change. Table 8.1 provides nine examples of these models that entail anywhere from a 5-step to a 13-step version of how change should proceed. These (and other) models differ not just in terms of the number of steps but whether all steps need to be followed, whether they need to be followed in sequence, and whether they need to be adapted to specific settings.2
Kirkpatrick portrays his seven “step-by-step” change model as “a systematic approach” which “should be followed to ensure that the best decisions are made and that the changes will be accepted by those involved.”3 Mento, Jones, and Dirndorfer present their model as being based on both theory and practice4 and suggest that their 12 steps “are not to be regarded only sequentially, but also as an integrated process to enable change.”5 Pendlebury, Grouard, and Meston6 write that although their “Ten Keys” model may be adapted to suit particular change circumstances, omission of the various keys will likely lead to transformational failure. Most keys need to be implemented simultaneously and continuously during a change process, although some play a greater role in differing change phases compared to others. For example, they point out that:
•Discontinuous change is more likely to be associated with static environments and in this situation all keys “need to be applied scrupulously,” whereas
•In dynamic environments, where change is continuous, keys two (mobilize), three (catalyze), seven (handle emotions), and eight (handle power) “will be less vital”7 since staff will be more accustomed to change.
In this model, adapting the method appears to mean weighing the degree to which various keys are applied, not whether they are applied.
Nadler8 maintains, in relation to his “12 Action Steps” change management framework, that it “can be adapted and applied by executives and managers at every level of
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the organization, providing immensely useful tools for initiating, leading, and managing change in every corner of the organization.”9 He depicts discontinuous change as being a continuous cycle rather than a linear process and identifies three core elements that need to be managed during the transformational process:10
•The need to manage organizational power, as depicted in steps 1 to 4 (see Table 8.1).
•The need to motivate people to participate in the change, in particular dealing with the anxieties associated with change, as depicted in steps 5 to 8.
•The need to manage the transition itself, as depicted in steps 9 to 12.
While pointing to the importance of all steps, Nadler accepts that some steps will need to be emphasized more in some change situations compared to others and that the order of the steps may vary according to the change situation.11 Taffinder12 makes similar points in relation to his five “transformation trajectories” (see Table 8.1). These trajectories are not linear but multidimensional; their starting points are staggered; some actions are dependent upon others’ actions; however, their sequence is context specific, as is the emphasis that needs to be placed on each transition line. Anderson and Anderson echo these sentiments when pointing out that their “Change Process Model can be tailored for all types of change, as well as any magnitude of change effort.”13 They emphasize that their model should be seen as a way of thinking for change managers, who may be simultaneously operating with up to four change phases at once.14
Similar to the models presented in Table 8.1 is the work of Ghoshal and Bartlett,15 who argue for the importance “of sequencing and implementation of activities in a change process.”16 They identify three distinct but interrelated transformational change phases:
•Rationalization (streamlining company operations).
•Revitalization (leveraging resources and linking opportunities across the whole organization).
•Regeneration (managing business unit operations and tensions, while at the same time collaborating elsewhere in the organization to achieve performance).17
They claim that while change is often presented as difficult and messy, there is nothing mystical about the process of achieving change with effective changes following the rationalization, revitalization, and regeneration sequential process.18 Going through these change phases is not necessarily easy, with the process being akin to the transformation of a caterpillar into a butterfly: “It goes blind, its legs fall off, and its body is torn apart as the beautiful wings emerge. Similarly, transforming a hierarchical bureaucracy into a flexible, self-generating company can be painful, and it requires enormous courage from those who must lead the process of change.”19
Of the change management models presented in Table 8.1, Kanter, Stein, and Jick20 adopt a reflective position in commenting upon the utility of their “Ten Commandments”:
•First, they point out that how they are practiced and interpreted will vary according to the particular change maker group in question (strategists, implementers, and recipients). For example, while change strategists may view a change as urgent, a change recipient might view it quite differently if, in their eyes, it may lead to them being laid off.
•Second, multiple changes may be in progress so that what constitutes the notion of the past may be difficult to determine.
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TABLE 8.1
Planned Change Management Models: Examples from 1992 to 2006
Source: The models are variously paraphrased and/or reproduced from the authors as listed in each column.
Kanter,
Stein, and
Jick (1992) Pendlebury,
Crouard,
and Meston
(1998) Nadler (1998) Taffinder
(1998) Anderson and
Anderson
(2001) Kirkpatrick
(2001) Mento,
Jones, and
Dirndorfer
(2002) Light
(2005) Leppitt (2006)
Ten
Commandments Ten Keys 12 Action Steps Transformation
Trajectory Nine-Phase
Change Process
Model Step-by-Step
Change
Model 12-Step
Framework RAND’s Six
Steps Integrated
Model
1.Analyze the need for change 1.Define the vision 1.Get support of key power groups 1.Awaken 1.Prepare to lead the change 1.Determine the need or desire for change 1.Highlight the need for change 1.Create a sense of urgency 1.Understand the context
2.Create a shared vision 2.Mobilize 2.Get leaders to model change behavior 2.Conceive the future 2.Create organizational vision, commitment, and capacity 2.Prepare tentative plans 2.Define what is the change 2.Remove the barriers to success 2.Understand the vision and strategy
3.Separate from the past 3.Catalyze 3.Use symbols and language 3.Build the agenda of change 3.Assess the situation to determine design requirements 3.Analyze probable reactions 3.Evaluate the climate for change 3.Recruit the champions 3.Create and communicate the urgency for change
4.Create a sense of urgency 4.Steer 4.Define areas of stability 4.Deliver big change 4.Design the desired state 4.Make a final decision 4.Develop a change plan 4.Build internal momentum 4.Build consensus for the change
5.Support a strong leader role 5.Deliver 5.Surface dissatisfaction with the present conditions 5.Master the change 5.Analyze the impact 5.Establish a timetable 5.Find and cultivate a sponsor 5.Prove that change works 5.Establish clear leadership
6.Line up political sponsorship 6.Obtain participation 6.Promote participation in change 6.Plan and organize for implementation 6.Communicate the change 6.Prepare the recipients of change 6.Keep experimenting 6.Build organizational capability
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7.Craft an implementation plan 7.Handle emotions 7.Reward behavior that supports change 7.Implement the change 7.Implement the change 7.Create a cultural fit to make the change last 7.Plan what resources will be needed
8.Develop enabling structures 8.Handle power 8.Disengage from the old 8.Celebrate and integrate the new state 8.Choose and devleop a change leader 8.Plan the life cycle of the change
9.Communicate and involve people 9.Train and coach 9.Develop and clearly communicate image of the future 9.Learn and course correct 9.Retain motivation by creating small wins 9.Secure needed resources
10.Reinforce and institutionalize change 10.Actively communicate 10.Use multiple leverage points 10.Communicate change constantly and strategically 10.Have a clear change management delivery structure
11.Develop transition management arrangements 11.Measure the change progress 11.Enable quick wins
12.Create feedback 12.Integrate the lessons learned from the change 12.Establish and monitor change metrics
13.Consolidate and integrate change lessons
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•Third, the change commandments need to be tailored to the needs of each organization; the commandments themselves may even form the source of debate within an organization in terms of how best to proceed.
•Fourth, they highlight the need for communication about change to be not just about passing on information but about allowing differing voices to be heard in the change process and engaging in dialogue with differing groups affected by the change.
•Fifth, they note that underpinning the 10 commandments is an assumption of action: “But this focus on action assumes a level of control that simply doesn’t exist when large-scale change is being implemented. Those who want to embrace change must be as adept at reacting as they are at acting.”21
•Sixth, they point to a paradox underlying the 10 commandments—that they help provide change strategists and implementers with the means of controlling change at precisely the time that the opposite is required: “while the commandments may serve to minimize failure, maximize control and predictability, and define the end state, a transformation may actually require maximizing experimentation and risk taking, tolerating unknowable consequences, and evolving toward—rather than targeting—an end state.”22
•Seventh, they point out that although the change model calls for a strong leader, the reality may be one of multiple leaders in an organization “wrestling with how change is to be managed, and by whom.”23
Given these ambiguities, they maintain that “muddling along” and taking one stage at a time may be the most appropriate means of handling complex changes.24 They conclude that “(a)lthough managing change will never be easy, with the right attitude and approach, it can be a most gratifying adventure.”25
Possibly one of the best-known change management models, now widely regarded as a classic in the field, is John Kotter’s eight-step model.26 First published in 1995 as an article in the Harvard Business Review(HBR), it became HBR’s most requested article for reprints in that year.27 Subsequently, the article was expanded in 1996 into a book titled Leading Change, which was expanded further in 2002 with another book titled The Heart of Change. Table 8.2 provides a summary of his classic model.
While Kotter acknowledges that his framework simplifies the change process and that “even successful change efforts are messy and full of surprises,”28 he maintains that following the eight phases he outlines is important for achieving successful change and that “[s]kipping steps creates only the illusion of speed and never produces a satisfying result.”29 He argues that successful change follows a “see–feel–change” pattern in which problems need to be presented in a compelling way that captures the attention of others; this awakens in them feelings about the need for change; and the change itself reinforces new behaviors. Without dismissing an alternative “analysis–think–change” pattern, he argues that the “see–feel–change” pattern is more motivating for people to engage in change.30
Is Change Management Supplanting OD?
Some writers argue that as the relevance of OD came into question, so did this lead to a rise in interest in change management models. This raises the question: are change management models supplanting OD? There is no simple way of answering this question. However, what is of interest is an analysis of the key social science electronic database, ABInform.
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TABLE 8.2
Kotter’s Eight-Step Change Management Model
Source: Adapted from Kotter, 1995:61; 1996:21.
Step Actions
1.Establish the need for urgency • Perform market analyses
• Determine problems and opportunities
• Use techniques to focus people’s attention on the importance of change to meet these challenges
2.Ensure there is a powerful change group to guide the change • Create team structures to help drive the change
• Ensure teams have sufficient power to achieve the desired change
3.Develop a vision • Develop a vision that provides a focus for the change
4.Communicate the vision • Role model the behavior implied by the vision
• Use multiple channels to constantly communicate the vision
5.Empower staff • Remove organizational policies and structures that inhibit achievement of the vision
• Encourage risk taking
6.Ensure there are short-term wins • Wins help support need for change
• Rewarding
“ wins” helps to provide motivation
7.Consolidate gains • Continue to remove organizational policies and processes that inhibit change
• Reward those who engage positively with the change
• Establish new, related change projects
8.Embed the change in the culture • Link change to organizational performance and leadership
EXERCISE 8.1
Experiencing Change
This exercise is designed for people who have had some experience of organizational change. For those who lack this experience, you may wish to get someone else’s perspective on what follows and use this information to frame your responses.
In any change process, there are usually three change groups:31
•Change strategists are those individuals or groups who legitimate or sanction organizational changes. Most often these people occupy senior management positions.
•Those who are responsible for implementing change, often middle management, are known as change implementers.
•Those people who are the recipients of change (knowledge, skills, attitudes, etc.) are known as change recipients.
Divide into two groups: those who have been change strategists/implementers and those who have been change recipients.
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Change Strategists/Implementers Group
1.What type of change did you attempt? (List these in your group.)
2.How was the change received by the change targets?
3.What was the most frustrating part? Why? (List these in your group.)
4.How would you rate your success in achieving the desired change? What would you do differently next time? Why?
Change Recipients Group