Culturally Diverse Leadership

Culturally Diverse Leadership

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Assignment: You have recently been promoted to or hired into a leadership position whereas you have 12 front line employees who report to you. These 12 people are

responsible for a number of different organizational functions and roles. Your boss, the person who hired you, has asked you to prepare some leadership training for

the 12 employees as your first order of business, due to his/her commitment to succession planning and knowledge management. Reflecting upon the recent study of

leadership that you completed as part of your graduate degree, you elect to incorporate the five practices and ten commitments of leadership as posited by Authors

Kouzes and Posner (2007) as the basis of your class.

Using the five practices and ten commitments from Kouzes and Posner (2007) design a leadership model for your 12 employees using a power point slide presentation with

specific and detailed speaker notes. Your presentation should consist of a minimum of 15 slides, with the final slide used for your references. Be sure to provide a

description of the organization that you will be using as the basis of your presentation and, conclude your presentation with a reference list on your last slide.

International and Culturally Diverse Aspects of Leadership
Sensitivity to and an appreciation of cultural diversity improves working relationships. The modern leader must be multicultural because corporate success, profit, and

growth depend increasingly on the management of a diverse workforce. An increasing number of new entrants to the workforce are women and people of color. The leader

must respond to the needs of diverse groups of people. In addition to the workforce becoming more diverse, business has become increasingly global.
I. THE ADVANTAGES OF MANAGING FOR DIVERSITY
The ethical and social responsibility goals of leaders and their organizations support the importance of providing adequately for members of the diverse workforce.

Ethical leaders feel compelled to use merit as a basis for making human resource decisions. A firm that embraces diversity is also behaving in a socially responsible

manner. Managing for diversity brings a competitive advantage to the firm in the following ways:
A. Reduction of turnover and absenteeism costs may result from managing diversity.
B. Managing diversity well offers a marketing advantage. For example, a multicultural group of decision makers may be at an advantage in reaching a multicultural

market. Another marketing advantage is that many people from culturally diverse groups prefer to buy from a company that has a good reputation for managing diversity.
C. Companies with a favorable record in managing diversity are at a distinct advantage in recruiting and retaining talented people.
D. Managing diversity well unlocks the potential for excellence.
E. Heterogeneity in the workforce may offer the company a creativity advantage, plus improved problem solving and decision making.
Diversity can be a double-edge sword: it increases both the opportunity for creativity and the likelihood that group members will be dissatisfied and fail to identify

with the group.
II. CULTURAL FACTORS INFLUENCING LEADERSHIP PRACTICE
A multicultural leader is a leader with the skills and attitudes to relate effectively to and motivate people across race, gender, age, social attitudes, and

lifestyles. To influence, motivate, and inspire culturally diverse people, the leader must be aware of overt and subtle cultural differences. Such culturally based

differences are generalizations and stereotypes that are starting points in attempting to lead a person from a particular culture.
A. Key Dimensions of Differences in Cultural Values
One way of understanding how national cultures differ is to examine their standing on selected values, ten of which are described here.
1. Performance orientation is the degree to which a society encourages (or should encourage) and rewards group members for performance improvement and excellence.
2. Assertiveness is the degree to which individuals are (and should be) assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in their relationships with one another.
3. Future orientation is the extent to which individuals engage (and should engage) in future-oriented behaviors such as delaying gratification, planning, and making

investments for the future.
4. Time orientation is the importance nations and individuals attach to time. People with an urgent time orientation, perceive time as a scarce resource and tend to be

impatient.
5. Humane orientation is the degree to which a society encourages and rewards, and should encourage and reward, individuals for being fair, altruistic, and caring to

others.
6. In-group collectivism is the degree to which individuals express, and should express, pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their organizations and families.
7. Gender egalitarianism is the degree to which a culture minimizes, and should minimize, gender inequality.
8. Power distance is the degree to which members of a society expect, and should expect, power to be distributed unequally.
9. Uncertainty avoidance is the extent to which members of a society rely, and should rely, on social norms, rules, and procedures to lessen the unpredictability of

future events.
10. Work orientation is the number of hours per week and weeks per year people expect to invest in work versus leisure or other nonwork activities.
To use the above information, a leader should recognize that a person’s national values might influence his or her behavior. For example, a person with a low power-

distance orientation would not immediately comply with a superior’s suggestions. The leader might therefore have to sell the person on the request.
B. Cultural Values and Leadership Style
Relationships between people in a society are affected by the values programmed in the minds of these people. Because management deals heavily with interpersonal

relationships, management and leadership are affected by cultural values.
1. French Managers. In France, which is a class society, French managers are part of an elite class and behave in a superior, authoritarian manner.
2. German Managers. In Germany, middle managers were studied as part of the GLOBE project. A strong performance orientation (combined with low compassion) was found to

be the most pronounced German cultural value.
3. Malaysian Managers. Based also on the GLOBE project, the preferred leadership style of Malaysian managers is to show compassion, while at the same time being more

autocratic than participative. The three highest ranking leadership dimensions for Malaysian managers were (1) charismatic/transformational, (2) team-oriented, and (3)

human oriented.
4. Northern U. S. versus Southern U. S. Managers. An example of a cross-regional stereotype is that managers in the southern United States are lower key and more

interested in relationship building than their brusque counterparts in the north. The stereotype of southern business leaders being more laidback, and slow moving has

been challenged.
III. CULTURAL SENSITIVITY AND CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE
Cultural sensitivity and cultural intelligence, and certain specific global leadership skills are essential for inspiring people from cultures other than one’s own.

Leadership attributes in general are also important.
A. Cultural Sensitivity
Cultural sensitivity is essential for inspiring people from cultures other than one’s own. To influence others, leaders must be sensitive to cultural differences. A

cross-cultural leader must also be patient, adaptable, flexible, and willing to listen and learn. These characteristics are part of cultural sensitivity, an awareness

of and a willingness to investigate the reasons why people of another culture act as they do.
Cultural sensitivity is also important because it helps a person become a multicultural worker—one who is convinced that all cultures are equally good and who enjoys

learning about other cultures. Sensitivity is the most important characteristic for leading people from other cultures because cultural stereotypes rarely provide

reliable guides. Another aspect of cultural sensitivity for cross-cultural leaders is to pay close attention to foreign business practices.
Problems of cultural misunderstanding that leaders should be aware of cluster in five areas: (1) language differences; (2) religious differences; (3) different work

habits, such as being willing to invest personal time in work; (4) differences in women’s roles across cultures; and (5) differences in personal appearance and

behavior.
Cultural sensitivity is enhanced by diversity training as well as by simply listening carefully and observing. A key principle is to be flexible when dealing with

people from other cultures.
Generational differences are another manifestation of cultural differences, quite often within a leader’s national culture. For example, young people typically want

more frequent recognition and rewards as well as flexible scheduling.
B. Cultural Intelligence
A refinement and expansion of cultural sensitivity is cultural intelligence (CQ): an outsider’s ability to interpret someone’s unfamiliar and ambiguous gestures the

way that person’s compatriots would. Cultural intelligence has three facets or components: (a) Cognitive CQ (Head), (b) Physical CQ (body), and (c)

Emotional/motivational CQ (Heart). To attain the highest level of cultural intelligence, the head, body, and head would have to work together smoothly.
IV. GLOBAL LEADERSHIP SKILLS
Global leadership skills refer to the ability to exercise effective leadership in a variety of countries. The essence of global leadership is the ability to influence

people who are dissimilar to the leader and stem from different cultural backgrounds.
A. A Proposed Model for Global Leadership Skills
Global leadership skills improve a company’s reputation and contribute to a sustainable competitive advantage. Excellent global leaders have a leadership style that

generates superior corporate performance in terms of four criteria: (1) profitability and productivity, (2) continuity and efficiency, (3) commitment and morale, and

(4) adaptability and innovation. Attaining all four criteria of organizational performance is called behavioral complexity.
Another perspective on global leadership skills is that the leader must tap into a deep, universal layer of human motivation in order to build loyalty, trust, and

teamwork in different cultures. To get at the needs (such as affiliation and exploration), the global leader must satisfy three meta-values: community (serving the

common good), pleasure (intrinsic motivation), and meaning (meaningful work).
B. Success Factors in International Management Positions
Effective global leaders also exhibit leadership skills necessary for dealing with day-by-day interactions. As revealed by a study, two success factors are sensitivity

to cultural differences and being culturally adventurous. Being a contextual chameleon, or adapting to different roles and environments, is also quite important

according to the consulting firm of DDI. A study demonstrated that deficits in emotional intelligence contributed to executive failure on assignments in Latin America,

Europe, and Japan.
Tolerance for ambiguity is especially important for developing global leadership skills because every country represents a new way of doing things. Providing

leadership to cross-cultural teams also requires tolerance for ambiguity, such as team members having different attitudes toward power and authority.
A confusing skill issue for many international managers is the importance of having a good command of a second language. English is the standard language of business

and science, but when trying to influence a person from another culture, speaking his or her language well gives you an advantage.
C. Motivating and Inspiring Workers in Other Cultures
Expectancy theory provides the best general clue to motivating people in other cultures—figure out which rewards have high valence for them. Also, workers will be

motivated and inspired to the extent that need satisfaction will be forthcoming. One stereotype is that German professionals prefer motivating through exciting work,

whereas Americans prefer external rewards.
A highly visible example of a leader with global leadership skills is Carlos Ghosn, the chief executive of both Nissan and Renault, known as the “hottest car guy on

earth.” He crosses time zones and cultures with great facility.
V. LEADERSHIP INITIATIVES FOR ACHIEVING CULTURAL DIVERSITY
For organizations to value diversity, top management must also be committed to embedding diversity in company strategy. The commitment is clearest when it is embedded

in organizational strategy, as well as in the life and culture of the organization. Diversity initiatives should be deep rather than superficial.
A. Hold Managers Accountable for Achieving Diversity
If managers are held accountable for behavior and business changes in the diversity arena, an organizational culture supportive of diversity will develop. Achieving

diversity objectives can be included in performance appraisals and linked to compensation. After being faced with charges of discrimination, Wal-Mart cut executive’s

bonuses if they failed to meet diversity goals. Allstate measures the accomplishment of diversity with an employee survey that includes a diversity index.
B. Establish Minority Recruitment, Retention, and Mentoring Programs
An essential initiative for building a diverse work force is to recruit and retain members of the targeted minority group. Because recruiting talented members of

minority groups and women is competitive, careful human resources planning is required. Efforts at recruiting a culturally diverse work force must be supported by a

leadership and management approach that leads to high retention, such as cultural training programs.
Mentoring is a key initiative for retaining minority group members, as well as facilitating their advancement. Successful minorities with supportive managers and

coworkers have faster compensation growth and progress more rapidly in their firms.
C. Conduct Diversity Training
Diversity training has become a widely used, though controversial, method for enhancing diversity within organizations. The purpose of diversity training is to bring

about workplace harmony by teaching people how to get along better with diverse work associates. Training sessions in valuing differences focus on the ways in which

men and women and people of different races reflect different values, attitudes, and cultural backgrounds. Sometimes these programs are confrontational, sometimes not.

An essential part of relating more effectively to diverse groups is to empathize with their point of view.
An extension of diversity training is to help organizational leaders develop empathy for diverse groups by having them spend time working with demographic groups

different from their own.
A concern about diversity training is that it serves to reinforce stereotypes about groups. Leaders of diversity training are cautioned to guard against encouraging

participants to be too confrontational and expressing too much hostility.
Diversity training may not accelerate the number of minority group members and women into managerial positions. An extensive review suggested that when diversity

training was mandatory was mandatory and aimed to avoiding liability in discrimination lawsuits, the number of women in management decreased. The opposite effect

occurred when diversity training is voluntary and implemented to advance a company’s business strategy.
D. Conduct Cross-Cultural Training
The method frequently chosen for overseas assignments is cross-cultural training, a set of learning experiences designed to help employees understand the customs,

traditions, and beliefs of another culture. The art of facial cheek kissing is an amusing, yet important aspect of cross-cultural training.
A recent development in intercultural training is to train global leaders in cultural intelligence. Global managers receive training in the cognitive, physical, and

emotional/motivational domain.
E. Encourage the Development of Employee Networks
An employee network group is composed of employees throughout the company who affiliate on the basis of a group characteristic such as race, ethnicity, sex, sexual

orientation, or physical ability status. Group members typically have similar interests and look to the group as a way of sharing information about succeeding in the

organization.
Employee network groups often play a functional role in the organization in addition to a social role. For example, the Latino Employee Network at Frito-Lay made a

major contribution during the development of Doritos Guacamole Flavored Tortilla Chips.
F. Avoid Group Characteristics When Hiring for Person-Organization Fit
Person-organization fit centers around the extent to which a person’s major work-related values and personality traits fit major elements of the organization culture.

Selecting for person-organization fit can lead to a cohesive and strong organizational culture. The danger, however, is that when employers focus too sharply on

cultural fit in the hiring process, they might inadvertently discriminate against protected classes of workers. Selecting candidates who look and act alike conflicts

with a diversity strategy. The antidote is to focus on traits, behaviors, and values rather than group characteristics when hiring.
G. Attain Diversity among Organizational Leaders
To achieve a multicultural organization, firms must also practice leadership diversity, the presence of a culturally heterogeneous group of leaders. An organization

with leadership diversity also has a heterogeneous group of leaders in such positions as supervisors, middle managers, and team leaders. Much progress has been

attained by corporations in attaining leadership diversity, but there is still room for improvement.
VI. GUIDELINES FOR ACTION AND SKILL DEVELOPMENT
A major problem to manage in developing a diverse workforce is for company leadership to reduce turnover among the employees they have worked so hard to recruit. A

report suggested that companies include a clear path for employee advancement, and provide suggestions for development as part of performance evaluation.
A caution in implementing diversity management programs is for managers and other interviewers not to go overboard in trying to make a minority group member feel

comfortable. The head of a diversity recruiting firm advises, “The best way to make minority candidates feel comfortable is to make them feel that they have an equal

opportunity to compete for a position. That’s all they want.”
I. DEVELOPMENT THROUGH SELF-AWARENESS AND SELF-DISCIPLINE
Self-help contributes heavily to developing leadership capabilities. Two major components of leadership self-development are self-awareness and self-discipline.
A. Leadership Development Through Self-Awareness
An important mechanism underlying self-development is self-awareness, insightfully processing feedback about oneself to improve personal effectiveness. Self-awareness

occurs at two levels. Single-loop learning occurs when learners seek minimum feedback that might substantially confront their basic ideas or actions. Single-loop

learners think defensively. Double-loop learning is an in-depth type of learning that occurs when people use feedback to confront the validity of the goal or the

values implicit in the situation. Double-loop learning enables the leader to learn and profit from setbacks. By interpreting the reason a setback occurred, the leader

might do better the next time.
A promising new area of self-awareness is for leaders to recognize their standing on two key dimensions of leadership: forceful versus enabling leadership; and

strategy versus operational. The leader should not go overboard on each dimension, such as being too forceful or enabling. Also, the leader should not spend so much

time strategizing that operations are neglected, or so much time focusing on operations that strategy is neglected. The lopsided leader focuses on the extremes.
B. Leadership Development Through Self-Discipline
Leadership development requires considerable self-discipline, mobilizing one’s effort and energy to stay focused on attaining an important goal. Self-discipline plays

an important role in the continuous monitoring of one’s behavior to ensure that needed self-development occurs.
A key part of self-awareness and self-discipline as vehicles for personal development is to have a healthy belief in personal growth. With a healthy belief in growth,

people assume that they will develop their talents during their personal and work lives.
II. DEVELOPMENT THROUGH EDUCATION, EXPERIENCE, AND MENTORING
Much of leadership development takes place through means other than self-awareness and self-discipline or leadership development programs. Almost any life activity can

help people prepare for a leadership role.
A. Education
Education generally refers to acquiring knowledge without concern about immediate application. The extent of formal education is positively correlated with achieving

managerial and leadership positions and with the level of leadership position attained. Most high-level leaders are intelligent, well-informed people who gather

knowledge throughout their career.
B. Experience
Without experience, knowledge cannot readily be converted into skills. Leadership experience also helps build skills and insights that a person may not have formally

studied.
1. Challenging Experiences. The best experiences for leadership development are those that challenge the manager realistically. The goal of leadership development is

to provide meaningful development opportunities, not to push managers to the point where they are most likely to fail. As the idea is reinforced by Richard Branson,

failure can be developmental. Table 15–1 of the text lists powerful developmental experiences. An important part of capitalizing on challenging experiences is for the

leader/manager to be given leeway in choosing how to resolve the problem.
2. Sources of Experience. The two major developmental factors in any work situation are work associates and the task itself. Work associates can serve as positive or

negative models. Work-related tasks give the leader an opportunity to become an effective and innovative problem solver. The tasks that do most to foster development

are those that are more complex and ambiguous than a person has faced previously.
An extreme approach to developing leadership skills is to be assigned responsibility for an area in which you lack the appropriate skills or knowledge of the business.

Leadership skills needed to succeed in unfamiliar situations include consultation with the right people and exuding self-confidence, yet not being arrogant.
3. Broad Experience. Many aspects of leadership are situational. Gaining managerial experience in different settings is therefore advantageous. Multifunctional

managerial development is an organization’s intentional efforts to enhance the effectiveness of managers by giving them experience in multiple organizational

functions. The lowest level of commitment would be for managers simply to study other functions. The highest level of commitment is complete mobility across functions.

A growing practice is to assign managers to cross-functional teams to give them experience in working with other disciplines. Achieving broad experience fits well with

the current emphasis on growth through learning new skills rather than a preoccupation with vertical mobility.
C. Mentoring
Coaching often comes from a mentor, a more experienced person who develops a protégé’s abilities through tutoring, coaching, guidance, and emotional support. A mentor

is often a person’s manager, but he or she can also be a staff professional or a coworker.
1. Informal Versus Formal Mentoring. Mentoring is traditionally thought of as an informal relationship based on compatibility between two personalities; however, many

firms offer formal mentoring programs. Ragins and Cotton studied the effectiveness of informal versus formal mentoring programs for men and women, across three

occupations. Informal mentoring led to higher income.
The human resources group is often involved with successful mentoring in setting goals, pairing mentors with protégés, and getting top management committed to the

program. A new approach to mentoring is shadowing, or directly observing the work activities of the mentor by following the person around for a stated period of time.
Online, or virtual, mentoring is popular because sending e-mail messages helps overcome barriers created by geography, limited time, and voice mail. Online mentoring

offers a wide pool of possible mentors and better matches between the mentor and person mentored. Online mentoring also includes profiling software and intranets to

make matching more specific.
2. Impact on Leadership. A survey of large companies found that 96 percent of executives credited mentoring as an important developmental method, and 75 percent said

mentoring played a key role in career success. High-level leaders sometimes use mentors as a way of obtaining useful feedback. The mentor can serve as a model of

effective (or ineffective) leadership, and can coach the protégé about handling leadership situations and understanding the political aspects of the organization.
III. LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS
Leadership development programs typically focus on topics such as personal growth, leadership style, strategy formulation, influence, motivation, and persuasive

communication. Management development programs include many more topics than do those programs focused on leadership. Although leadership development programs overlap,

they can be divided into six types.
Leadership development has become a heavy priority for many major business and government organizations. One of the forces compelling companies to develop leaders is

the world economy’s shift from dependency on financial capital toward human capital.
A. Types of Leadership Development Programs
In practice, the various programs for developing leaders often overlap.
1. Feedback-Intensive Programs. A feedback-intensive development program helps leaders develop by seeing more clearly their patterns of behavior, the reasons for such

behaviors, and the impact of these behaviors and attitudes on their effectiveness. These programs combine and balance three key elements of a developmental experience:

assessment, challenge, and support. Emotional support helps participants work through the intensity of the feedback. An instructive point about feedback intensive

programs, as well as practically all forms of leadership development, if that the person being developed needs to follow up.
2. Skill-Based Programs. Skill training in leadership development involves acquiring abilities and techniques that can be converted into action. The emphasis is on

learning how to apply knowledge. Five different methods are often used in skill-based leadership training: lecture, case study, role-play, behavioral role modeling,

and simulations. Behavioral role modeling is an extension of role playing and is based on social learning theory. Simulations give participants an opportunity to work

on a problem that simulates a real organization. A pioneering approach to simulations for leadership development is the use of multiple online role playing fantasy

games such as Star Wars Galaxies.
3. Conceptual Knowledge and Awareness Programs. A standard approach to leadership development is to learn useful concepts about leadership. Conceptual knowledge is

very important because it alerts the leader to information that will make a difference in leadership.
4. Personal Growth Programs. Leadership through personal growth involves getting in touch with one’s inner desires and fulfilling them. The tacit assumption is that

leadership is almost a calling. Personal growth specialist Jim Loehr challenges program participants to reflect on their lives and identify something they want to

change that will give them more energy and improved motivational skills.
5. Socialization Programs. From the company standpoint, an essential type of leadership development program emphasizes socializing (becoming acclimated to and

accepting) the company vision and values. Frequently, the chief executive makes a presentation of the company vision and values.
6. Action Learning Programs. In action learning, leaders and potential leaders work together in groups to solve organization problems outside of their usual sphere of

influence. Action learning is also referred to as experiential learning. A variation on action learning for leadership development is to send leaders abroad to work on

volunteer projects.
7. Coaching and Psychotherapy. Executive coaching is clearly a form of leadership development. Another highly personal way of enhancing leadership effectiveness is to

undergo treatment for emotional problems that could be blocking leadership effectiveness.
The process of leadership development continues to evolve. Content of these programs varies to fit new opinion and research as to what is the most relevant for leaders

to know.
Many companies evaluate their leadership development programs to see if they are cost effective. Evaluation methods include ratings by subordinates and the financial

results attained by the developed leaders.
IV. LEADERSHIP SUCCESSION
In a well-managed organization, replacements for retiring and dismissed executives are chosen through leadership succession, an orderly process of identifying and

grooming people to replace executives. Being groomed as a successor is part of a person’s development, and fostering a successor’s development is part of a manager’s

own development. Succession planning is vital to the long-term health of an organization, and therefore an important responsibility of senior leadership. When

succession planning is done poorly, the result is leaders who are a poor fit for their responsibilities. A key approach to succession planning is to develop enough

strong leaders within the company.
A. How the Board Chooses a Successor
The board is likely to follow standard principles of human resources selection such as thoroughly screening candidates, including speaking to people who have worked

with the candidate. It is recommended that board members have regular contact (both formal and informal) with potential candidates.
B. Succession Planning at General Electric
Board members are closely involved in an ongoing evaluation of the company’s highest ranking managers. Twice a year directors scrutinize about fifteen of these people.

The process includes lengthy interviews with the managers, their managers, former associates, and group members. This system for identifying successors employs

multiple inputs and tracks longitudinal performance.
C. The Emotional Aspects of Leadership Succession
When executives are replaced, even if they are financially independent, they are likely to experience an emotional loss. Leadership succession in a family business is

emotional for many reasons, such as family squabbles over the best-qualified successor. Another potential problem with leadership succession in a family business is

conflict between or among siblings. Replacing a business founder is another emotional process.
Emotional reactions to leadership succession also take place at the work group level. An example is that when a departing leader is well liked by the group or team, it

will be more difficult for the new leader to exert his or her authority or be accepted. Also, turnover might be higher and productivity lower.
D. Developing a Pool of Successors
Research suggests that a shortage of business leaders is becoming a major problem. The recommended solution to the shortage is to create pools of candidates with high

leadership potential. Developing a pool of candidates combines evaluating potential with giving high-potential individuals the right type of developmental experiences.
Large, family-owned businesses often have an edge in leadership succession because the potential leaders have the benefit of years of experience under the watchful

eyes of their elders.
E. Growing Inside-Outside Leaders
Recent research suggests that promoting insiders with an outside perspective may be the best solution to the dilemma of whether to promote an insider or an outsider to

a top leadership position. Insider-outsiders are frequently those who have considerable experience away from the company mainstream, and away from headquarters, and

taking on challenging opportunities.
V. CHALLENGES OF BEING A NEW LEADER
One way of preparing for becoming a leader for the first time is to think through some of the inevitable challenges of occupying a formal leadership position for the

first time. Among the challenges are as follows:
A. Uncertainty about how much time to spend leading versus doing individual tasks.
B. Overcoming the resentment of the people in the group who wanted your leadership position.
C. Building relationships and fostering teamwork quickly enough.
D. Having realistic expectations about how much you can accomplish right away.
E. Overcoming the need to be liked by everybody.
VI. GUIDELINES FOR ACTION AND SKILL DEVELOPMENT
An important method for enhancing both the acceptance and the effectiveness of leadership development is needs analysis, the diagnosis of needs for development. A

needs analysis recognizes individual differences among leaders and future leaders. Sources of data for assessing leadership development needs include (1) self-

perceptions of developmental needs, (2) perceptions by others in the workplace, (3) psychological evaluation, and (4) a statement of organizational needs for

development.

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