psychology

! Describe the different perspectives from which psychologists examine behavior and
mental processes, and explain their complementarity. Your answer should include:
! The Behaviourist perspective
! The Psychodynamic perspective
! The Humanistic perspective
! Guidance on answering the essay question:
! Define Psychology as a science and identify different perspectives in the field.
! Include an overview of each of the three perspectives.
! Cite relevant research findings and discuss in some detail how they support or
question these perspectives.
! Discuss the information presented focusing on how these three approaches
complement one another.
! The essay is due on 14/04/2016!!!
! 2000 words!!!!!
Your Essay Should Demonstrate…
! Your understanding of a particular issue relating
to a particular subject.
! Your abilities in critically discussing and
assessing that issue.
! Your skill to write in a clear, logical and appealing
way.
Steps In Essay Writing
Developing a Plan…
!Introduction
!Main Body
!Conclusion
Introduction…
! In your introduction, which should be brief, you should
define the terms of reference and provide the context
within which your essay will take place.
! The key points you will develop should also be
mentioned, but try to stay away from long-winded
explanations.
! Remember, your introduction is not a summary of your
essay, but it should provide an explanation on how you
are planning to discuss the topic under examination.
Main Body…
! This is where you argue your position, providing explanations,
evidence and examples in order to support your point. All these
should be linked with the relevant theoretical background and should
be PROPERLY REFERENCED!!!
! The reader will expect you to demonstrate that you have a wider
understanding of the issue you are writing about.
! Your arguments should be well constructed and your overall essay
should be approached in a critical way.
! This means that you should compare and question relevant theories,
ideas, methodologies, etc in order to spot any weaknesses or gaps.
! Above all, the reader wants to hear ‘your own voice’, so your personal
opinion should be clear and well evidenced.
Conclusion…
! In this part you should present your reasoned
conclusion of your essay.
! Again, this should not be a summary of your essay,
but it should present the topic under study and also
involve a synthesis of your main points.
! It is very important not to present any new information
in this final section!
References
! APA referencing style.
! It must present details of the original journal articles
and books from where you cited research and
evidence in your essay.
! Watch out: we often make the mistake of citing
books or articles we have read for the purposes of
our essay, but from which we have not directly cited.
Remember, you do not need to include these in your
reference section.
!LET’S SEE HOW YOU CAN
STRUCTURE YOUR 2,000
WORD ESSAY
Analyse the Essay Topic
! Describe the different perspectives from which
psychologists examine behavior and mental processes,
and explain their complementarity. Your answer should
include:
! The Behaviourist perspective
! The Psychodynamic perspective
! The Humanistic perspective
! What are the terms of reference here?
! Psychology and how these three different approaches
study behaviour and how they complement one another.
Introduction (about 200-250 words)
! In the introduction, you prepare the reader of what is going to follow. You
should provide the context within which your essay will take place and
mention the key points you will develop.
! Start the introduction by providing the relevant definitions:
! Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes and
how they are affected by an organism’s physical state, mental state, and
environment (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2009).
! behavior: outward or overt actions and reactions
! mental processes: internal, covert activity of our minds
! Mention that there are a few approaches within psychology that attempt to
explain behaviour from different perspectives: the behaviourist, the
psychoanalytical, the humanistic, the biological and cognitive.
! Mention that for the purposes of this essay you will focus on the first three.
! Explain the reader how you plan to investigate this topic, i.e. by comparing
and contrasting these approaches and by considering evidence from
major theorists.
IF YOU ARE IN FAVOUR OF ONE OF
THESE APPROACHES OR IF YOU
BELIEVE THAT THEY COMPLEMENT
ONE ANOTHER YOU SHOULD MENTION
IT IN THE INTRODUCTION!!!
Main Body (about 1,500 words)
! This is where you argue your position, providing
explanations, evidence and examples. Divide the
essay into the following parts (BUT DO NOT USE
SUBHEADINGS):
! 1. The Behaviourist Approach
! 2. The Psychoanalytic Approach
! 3. The Humanistic Approach
The Behaviourist Approach
(about 450-500 words)
! Start the main body by mentioning that behaviourism, founded by John
Watson, was one of the great intellectual movements of the 20th century
and continues to have an effect on the way that we see ourselves and
the ways that we deal with people.
● Summarize the basic assumptions of behaviourism:
● Psychology is an objective natural science.
● Psychology’s goal should be the prediction and control of behaviour.
● It should study only those behaviours that can be observed and measured.
● Psychology becomes the science of behaviour rather than the science of minds
or mental life.
● There is no distinction between human and non-human behaviour. Human
behaviour is just a more complex form of behaviour than that of other animals.
● This being the case, rats, pigeons, cats and dogs can replace humans as
experimental subjects.
● Behaviourists emphasise the role of environmental factors in influencing
behaviour. Our responses to environmental stimuli shape our behaviors.
The Behaviourist Approach
! Refer to the two major behaviourist theories:
1. Classical conditioning- Ivan Pavlov
! What does it assert? How does it explain
behaviour? (e.g. behaviour is modified when two
or more stimuli are repeatedly paired together)
! Explain unconditioned/conditioned/neutral
stimulus and responses
! Research evidence? (e.g. Little Albert experiment)
! Explain extinction (e.g. the learning is undone)
! Provide examples of classical conditioning in our
daily lives (advertisements, classrooms etc)
The Behaviourist Approach
! 2. Operant conditioning- B.F. Skinner
! Explain that it is a method of learning that occurs through rewards
and punishments for behavior.
! Focus on the role of consequences on behaviour, e.g. , explain that
reinforcement is the use of consequences to change behaviour.
! Explain positive/negative reinforcement and punishment and
highlight that in the cases of positive and negative reinforcement,
the behavior increases. In punishment the behavior decreases.
! Mention types of reinforcers: intrinsic and extrinsic and how they
can be used in order to change behaviour (e.g. by parents, by
teachers etc).
! Briefly explain Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, focusing on
observational learning. Examples?
! Finish off this section by referring to the strengths and limitations of
the behaviourist approach.
The Psychodynamic Approach (450-500
words)
! Start by contrasting this approach to behaviourism
(behaviourism deals with external behaviour but this one
deals with internal processes).
! Refer to the basic assumptions of this approach: It focuses on
the role of internal processes (e.g., motivation) and past
experiences in shaping personality, and thereby behaviour.
! Mention that this approach was developed by Freud’s ideas
and comment on its four basic assumptions: 1) psychic
determinism, 2) importance of unconscious processes, 3)
continuity of normal and abnormal behaviour, 4) value of
clinical data.
The Psychodynamic Approach (450-500
words)
! Briefly explain Freud’s theory of consciousness,
i.e. our mind is divided into different levels of
consciousness (conscious and unconscious which
is further divided into preconscious and
subconscious).
! Focus on the functions of the unconscious (e.g.
the unconscious continues to influence our
behavior and experience, even though we are
unaware of this- give examples from everyday life,
e.g. Freudian slips and interpretation of dreams.
The Psychodynamic Approach
! Refer to Freud’s Drives theory and explain the life instincts
and the death instincts.
! Briefly explain Freud’s psychodynamic Model of
Personality (id, ego, superego and their functions- e.g.
how anxiety arises? What kind of defense mechanisms
does the ego use to protect itself?) ONLY ONE
EXAMPLE!
! Briefly refer to Freud’s psychosexual stages of
development. DO NOT EXPLAIN THEM ALL.
! Give an example of conflict at just one stage and how this
can influence our behaviour as adults (e.g. fixation at the
oral stage may lead to smoking or over-eating/drinking).
! Finish off by mentioning some of the strengths and
limitations of this approach.
The Humanistic Approach (450-500 words)
! Start by mentioning that this approach emerged
during the 1950s as a reaction to psychoanalysis
and behaviorism.
⦿ Some found behaviourism too limited, because it
focused on specific responses, while ignoring the
person as a whole. Others found psychoanalysis
both too rigid and too pessimistic.
! Thus it is often called the “third force” in
psychology after psychoanalysis and behaviorism.
The Humanistic Approach
! Mention that humanistic psychology focuses on each individual’s
potential and stressed the importance of growth and selfactualization.
! Very briefly explain the three assumptions which are basic to the
humanistic approach: a phenomenological viewpoint, a belief in the
capacity for choice, and an emphasis on meaning.
! Highlight that it is not in favour of determinism like behaviourism
and psychoanalysis.
! Mention that there are two major theorists within this approach:
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
The Humanistic Approach
! Refer to the basic assumptions in Roger’s theory:
⦿ For a person to “grow”, they need an environment that provides them with:
⦿ genuineness (openness and self-disclosure)
⦿ acceptance (being seen with unconditional positive regard)
⦿ empathy (being listened to and understood).
! Mention that Roger’s Personality Development theory states that the self
is composed of concepts unique to ourselves. The self-concept includes
three components: self-worth, self-image and ideal self.
! Briefly explain them by referring to the concepts of congruence and
incongruence.
! Explain the role of positive regard in Roger’s theory: it has to do with how
other people evaluate and judge us in social interactions.
! Explain the distinction between unconditional positive regard and
conditional positive regard and give examples.
The Humanistic Approach
! Refer to the basic assumptions in Maslow’s theory:
! He wanted to understand what motivates people. He believed that people
possess a set of motivation systems unrelated to rewards or unconscious
desires.
! Briefly explain how he viewed behaviour: a consequence of met/unmet needs.
! Briefly explain his Hierarchy of Needs theory, focusing on the interaction of
needs and behaviour. E.g. explain that depending on what need is dominant,
we engage in different behaviours to satisfy the need. Being unable to satisfy
a need leads to deficiencies; sometimes people will show maladaptive ways of
responding to needs, resulting in pathology.
! Mention how the relationship between needs and the environment plays a role
in understanding the behaviour of an individual. What is the role of the
individual? (has a responsibility to strive for growth and self-actualization,
regardless of circumstances).
! Conclude by referring to some of the strengths and limitations of the
humanistic approach.
Conclusion (about 200-250 words)
! It should not be a summary of your essay.
! Do not include any new information.
! It should provide a synthesis of your main points in
order to explain how you reached your own reasoned
conclusion. E.g. why are these approaches important
and how do they complement one another?
Before You Submit…
! Make sure:
! You have worked on my feedback
! Your essay includes an overall coherent argument
! The parts of the essay are well linked to one another
(use linking phrases such as: ‘as discussed above’,
‘furthermore’, ‘in addition’, etc.
! You use APA referencing style and all your references
are listed
! Proof-read your work for any typos, grammar/syntax/
spelling mistakes
! KEEP IT SIMPLE!!!
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